LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 



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UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



VOCAL AND ACTION -LANGUAGE 



CULTURE AND EXPRESSION 



E. N. KIRBY 



TEACHER OF ELOCUTION IN LYNN HIGH SCHOOLS 







BOSTON 

LEE AND SHEPARD, PUBLISHERS 

NEW YORK 

C. T. DILLINGHAM, 678 BROADWAY 

1885 



\ 






Copyright, 

1S84, 

By E. N. KIRBY= 



BOSTON* 

ELECTROTYPGU AND PRINTED PY 

ALFRED MUDCE AND SON. 



PREFACE, 



Many cf my pupils have repeatedly requested me to print 
for reference the matter on elocution as* I have given it in 
class and private instruction. With this in view, and hoping 
to benefit professional speakers and others, I venture to make 
public the subject as it has been received from the best 
sources in this country, which I am assured, upon the most 
reliable evidence, affords opportunities superior to those of 
any other in the world. 

My aim has been simply to make a concise and practical 
handbook on elocution, adapted especially to the needs of 
those who have had no adequate instruction or practice in an 
art which they must use as readers, speakers, or teachers. 

I lay no claim to original discovery, except in minor 
instances ; but claim the advantage cf having proven in 
teach' ng the value of the method and practice herein pre- 
sented. 

If the analysis and arrangement are valuable, I shall have 
accomplished something ; for no book, yet published, sys- 
tematic^iy presents the whole subject. 

The authorities for the facts contained in these pages are 
specialists in their departments. This will make the con- 
tents of standard value. 

I would gratefully acknowledge my obligation to my former 
teachers, prominent among whom were Prof. L. B. Monroe 
and Dr. Charles A. Guilmette (now deceased) and Dr. C. W. 
Emerson. I would here offer thanks to Dr. Martin, of Johns 
Hopkins University, for permission to use figures from his 
excellent work on "The Human Body," and to Messrs. 
Henry Holt & Co., publishers, for plates of the same. 

E. N. KIRBY. 
July 12, 1884. 



TO TEACHERS AND STUDENTS. 



It is hardly necessary to say that in no art, and especially 
not in the art of expression, can a handbook fill the place of 
a living teacher ; but with good book instruction the faithful 
student will make decided progress. I am confident that this 
instruction will also be found a valuable supplement to any 
teacher's efforts. 

In this subject, the student would do well to " prove all 
things," as far as possible, and accept any statement only 
because it means so much to him. 

It is recommended, first, that two or more combine in 
classes for mutual help. Among other things, this secures 
the advantage of another's eyes to see and another's ears to 
hear ; second, that the student study the contents of these 
pages, and become thoroughly acquainted with their princi- 
ples, then to practise faithfully day by day the exercises 
prescribed. 

Exercise in this work should be both general and specific, 
and adapted to individual peculiarities. Each student should 
seek first to know his own peculiar faults, and then work with 
the special exercise to overcome them. 

In addition to this, it is advisable to practise all that brings 
any development, and to cultivate expression with the fullest 
use of every agent. Let your work be not only destructive 
in overcoming faults, but constructive in seeking perfect 
expression. The student must work with the ear as well as 
with the mouth. Train the ear to detect every quality of 
voice and inflection, etc. The caution is given not to become 



6 VOCAL CULTURE AND EXPRESSION. 

discouraged if not able to accomplish any task after repeated 
efforts. You must " learn to labor and to wait." The time 
element must enter largely into the problem of all culture, 
and this is doubly true in the art cf expression. The faults 
you seek to eradicate are the growth cf years, perhaps ; but 
faithful work will accomplish good results in every case. 



CONTENTS. 



Preface . 3 

To Teachers and Students „ . „ , . 5 

List of Authorities 11 

Introductory. 
Necessity and Importance of Elocutionary Training. — 
Use of Language acquired — Practical Necessity — Relation 

to Press 13 

Opinions of Distinguished Men. — Archbishop of York- 
Rev. Dr. Hall — Dr. J. G Holland — Dr. Kirk— Hon. W. E. 

Dodge 19 

History of Elocution 21 

The System of Oratory 24 

Oratory as an Art 25 

Qualifications of the Orator. — Character — Truth — Thor- 
ough Knowledge — Store of Facts — Memory — Tact — Good- 
Will — Sincerity — Logic — Rhetoric — ; Imagination — Knowl- 
edge of the Fine Arts 2S 

Conditions 31 

Reading and Speaking ' i 2 



PART I. 
Vocal Culture and Expression. 



Vocal Culture. 
CHAPTER I. 



Physical Development. — For Vital Functioning — Chest Capa 

city — Erect, Strong Bearing — Respiration — Freedom ... 27 



VOCAL CULTURE AND EXPRESSION. 



CHAPTER II. 

The Physical Basis of Voice. — Sound — Musical Tones — 
Force — Pitch — Quality — Overtones — Physical Value of 
Vowels , 40 

CHAPTER III. 

Respiration — Inspiration — Expiration — Kinds of Breathing 

— Air breathed — Ventilation — Forced Breathing — Lung 
Expansion a 45 

CHAPTER IV. 

The Instrument of Voice . . 55 

The Physiology and Anatomy of the Vocal Apparatus. 

— Trachea — Larynx — Lungs — Opening of Glottis — Ten- 
sion of Vocal Cords 56 

V 

CHAPTER V. 
Vocal Development. — Qualities of Voice 62 

CHAPTER VI. 

Orthoepy. — Pronunciation — Alphabetic — Vowels — Conso- 
nants — Articulation 72 



Vocal Expression. 
CHAPTER VII. 

Language. — Language of Form — Attitude — Automatic Move- 
ment — Gesture — Facial Expression — Inarticulate Noises — 

Inflected Tones — Articulate Language — Deeds 82 

Articulate Language. — Emphasis 84 

Language of Inflected Tones. — Pitch — Discrete — Con- 
crete — Slides — Rising — Semitone — Falling — Circumflex 85 

CHAPTER VIII. 

Melody of Discourse. — Discrete Pitch — Cadence . . . . a 04 
Measure of Speech. — Accent — Measure — Quantity .... 97 



CONTENTS. 9 

Stress. — Radical — Median — Terminal — Thorough — Intermit- 
tent 99 

Force. — Gentle — Moderate — Loud — Very Loud 101 

Movement. — Quick — Moderate — Slow — Very Slow .... 103 
Qualities of Voice in Use. — Pure Tone — Full Tone — Aspi- 
rated — Guttural 104 

Phrasing or Grouping ' 105 

Climax 106 

Style 107 

Imitative Modulation 108 

Transition 108 

Analysis of Expressive "Voice no 



PART II. 

Action-Language Culture and Expression, 



CHAPTER I. 



Expression by Action. — Sir Charles Bell's Investigations — Dar- 
win's Principles — Other Classifications it 15 

Oratorical Value of Action 116 

CHAPTER IT. 

General Principles and Practice. — Preparatory Exercises — 

Laws 122 

CHAPTER III. 

Criteria for Practice 126 

Delsarte's Classification .126 

The Chest in Expression , , . . 120 

CHAPTER IV. 

The Limbs in Expression. — The Feet and Legs — The Hand 

— The Arms 128 

CHAPTER V. 
The Face and Head in Expression. — The Eyes — The Head, 136 



IO VOCAL CULTURE AND EXPRESSION. 

PART III. 
Expression. 



The Speaker before the Audience 
Analysis of Written Language. . 



M3 

144 



I. The Elder Brother . . . Monroe's Reader .... 146 

II. The Cheerful Locksmith. Charles Dickens .... 147 

III. LOCHINVAR Sir Walter Scott .... 148 

IV. Toussaint L'Ouverture . Wendell Phillips .... 149 
V. Speech Patrick Henry 152 

VI. Cassius and Brutus . . . Shakespeare 153 

VII. Language Ruskin 155 

VIII. Bunker Hill Monument . Webster 156 

IX. Psalm xxxix King David 158 

X. John ix St. John 159 

XI. The Sure Reward . . . /. G. Whittier 162 

XII. Fulness of Love .... Charles Wesley 163 



LIST OF AUTHORITIES. 



The following are some of the authorities used in this book* — 

Alford, Dean Henry "Queen's English." 

Alger, Rev. Wm. R. . . . "Dramatic Art " (in "Life of Forrest ") 

Austin, Gilbert " Chironomea." 

Barber, Dr. Jonathan " Grammar of Elocution.'' 

Bell, AM...... "Principles of Elocution.'' 

Bell, Sir Charles " Anatomy of Expression." 

Bell, Sir Charles "The Hand." 

Brown and Behnke. "Voice Song and Speech." 

Catlin, George , " Shut your Mouth." 

Darwin, C has. . . . " Expression of Emotion in Man and Animals.'' 
Delaumosne, M. L'Abbe. " Delsarte's Expressive Man." (Trans. 

by F. Shaw.) 

Guttman, Oskar " Vocal Gymnastics." 

Holmes, Gordon . .... "Physiology and Hygiene of the Voice." 
Helmholtz . . . . " Sensation of Tone." (Trans, by Alex'. J. Ellis ) 

Jebb, John "Attic Orators." 

Legouve, Earnest « . " Art of Reading." (Trans, by Edwd. Roth.) 

Martin, H. Neweli " The Human Body." 

Monroe, L. B. „ " Vocal Gymnastics " and " Reader." 

Plumptre, Charles J. . . " Lectures on Elocution." 

Quintilian . ............ "Institutes of Oratory." 

Rush, Dr. James " Philosophy of the Human Voice." 

Tyndall, John " On Sound." 

White, R. G " Words and their Uses." 



INTRODUCTION. 



i. — Necessity and Importance of Elocutionary 
Training. 

Although the subject of elocution is slowly assuming a 
place of importance in the country, there is still a great deal 
of misapprehension among people, otherwise intelligent, as 
to the nature and utility of the study. 

The objections urged are usually brief and stereotyped. I 
hope an answer to them may be found in the following dis- 
cussion. 

(i.) The first argument for the study is foundin the fact that 
the use of language and speech is acquired. However the race 
may have come by the power of language, certainly each one 
must acquire its use. The simplest forms of speech are 
learned in infancy. The person born deaf, not being im- 
pressible by the usual methods, remains destitute of the 
faculty of speech until unusual means are employed ; then 
even the deaf learn language, and the dumb are made to 
speak.* The models we imitate are not always perfect ones ; 
therefore faulty pronunciations, inflections, even bad qualities 
of voice, and other imperfections are acquired. Leaving 
these beginnings, man is conscious of thought, emotions, and 
affections, which he would express to others to whom he is 
related. The more refined the thought and delicate the 
emotion, the more difficult the expression, and he finds at last 
that language is poverty-stricken, in fact, sometimes a hinder- 
ance, to convey the burden of thought and heart. 

* See Bell's "Visible Speech," for deaf-mutes. 



14 VOCAL CULTURE AND EXPRESSION. 

A masterly use of written language requires special study 
and constant painstaking. Comparatively few attain to per- 
fection in the art; fewer still become skilful in speech, for 
the artist must not only be thoroughly proficient in the literal 
forms, but in addition must possess a body so disciplined and 
a nervous system so attuned, that the organs of speech may 
become the ready vehicles to express that which has appeared 
in the consciousness. 

Those indifferent to the study frequently indulge in the 
trite saying, "The orator is born." Fine musical genius is a 
gift of birth, but the musician does not fail to practise on his 
instrument. The speaker's voice is infinitely more complex 
and wonderful than any instrument made by man. Some 
men are happily endowed by nature for the exercise of 
oratory, so are others for surgery, but the student of the latter 
does not neglect anatomy cr the skilful use of his instru- 
ments. 

Many who would discourage technical study and practice in 
the art, are yet very liberal in prescribing their cure-all, " Be 
natural ! " To follow intelligently this advice would be quite 
difficult, if not impossible, without particular application. We 
would be first led to inquire what is meant by " natural." It 
is natural for some men to talk through the nose, for others 
to froth and pound, for others to indulge in a tone of sepul- 
chral monotony, reminding us of the phonograph. I hold it 
to be poor advice to recommend such to be "natural." If 
" natural " means normal, then the instruction, be normal, 
has a meaning. Normal expression would say, " Do not 
speak through the nose ; for physiologists have agreed, and 
vocal teachers have insisted, that the nose is not an organ of 
speech, but was made to smell with." Normal expression 
would recommend the minister to open his mouth, as did 
the Master when He gave the Sermon on the Mount. 

As the skilful use of language is not a matter of intuition 
and must be acquired, why not correct the faults hitherto 



INTRODUCTION. 1 5 

learned, and then systematically study speech instead of 
blindly using these wonderful powers ? They must and will 
be used, and should therefore be disciplined and cultivated. 

(2.) The second argument J r or the value of the study is that of 
practical necessity. Some have looked upon the practice of 
oratory as a luxury and not as a necessity; and upon its ex- 
cellences as adornments and not as indispensables. The art 
does not contemplate the effort to pass off nothing for some- 
thing, but to pass off something for just what it is worth. It 
aims at an easy and effective delivery, permitting nothing un- 
necessary. 

The action of many speakers, viewed from the standpoint 
of utility, is simply ridiculous. The thoughtful student sits 
and asks, " Now what is the use of that senseless monotony ? 
What is the use of whining and using that cant tone ? " 
Some speakers are as lifeless as skeletons and as cold as 
statues. They must be aroused. Others are as extravagant 
as clowns. They must be taught self-control. Very fre- 
quently we have heard the expression, " It tires me to hear 

Mr. , he labors so hard." I know of a case where an 

official member of a church, in full sympathy with his pastor, 
was compelled to attend service elsewhere, because the pain- 
ful use of the preacher's voice so affected him. To correct 
all extravagances, all mannerisms of action, all vicious habits 
of voice, is the first thing elocution sets itself about. 

The advantage of those who have qualified themselves as 
speakers over those who have not is a practical proof of the 
utility of the art. Some speakers, perhaps without special 
attention to the subject, speak well and have eminent suc- 
cess ; but certainly those who have not such natural abilities 
must not compare their chances for success with such unu- 
sual types. I once overheard an intelligent and aged layman 
discussing the subject with a young theological student. He 
took the ministers of the city, of all denominations, one by 
one ; in every instance those who had the best delivery 



\6 VOCAL CULTURE AND EXPRESSION. 

secured the largest audiences and did more effective work, 
though no better scholars than the others. Said he, " The 
question is often raised, ' How shall we. get people into the 
churches?'" In my opinion one answer is, "Have better 
speakers in the pulpit." 

When any one distinguishes himself in any particular, we 
naturally seek to know by what means he achieved his advan- 
tage, and esteem the practice of such lives valuable in rela- 
tion to their success. We find that those who have 
distinguished themselves as orators have been long, patient, 
and in some instances painful toilers at their art. Public ad- 
dress reached its highest perfection in Greece. Demosthe- 
nes is looked upon as the prince of orators. Plutarch says 
of him, "When he first addressed himself to the people, he 
met with great discouragements and was derided for his strange 
and uncouth manner. Besides, he had a weakness in his 
voice, a perplexed and indistinct utterance, and a shortness 
of breath, which, by breaking and disjointing his sentences, 
much obscured the sense and meaning of what he spoke. In 
one of his efforts, at length disheartened, he forsook the as- 
sembly. Eunomous, an old man, upbraided him for his lack 
of courage against the popular outcry, and for not fitting his 
body for action, but allowing it to languish through mere sloth 
and negligence." 

Another time, when the assembly refused to hear- him, 
going home, Satyrus, the actor, being his familiar friend, fol- 
lowed him. Demosthenes complained that drunkards and 
mariners and illiterate fellows were heard in the hustings, 
while he was dispraised. 

" You say true, Demosthenes ; repeat to me some passage 
out of Euripides or Sophocles." Satyrus, taking it after him, 
gave the passage with such new form that to Demosthenes it 
seemed like quite another thing. 

" Hereupon he built himself a place for study underground, 
and shaved one side of his head that he might not go abroad." 



INTRODUCTION. \J 

The younger Pitt, for some time a leader in the House of 
Commons, and one of the most distinguished orators of 
Great Britain, was faithfully trained by his father from infancy 
for a parliamentary orator. 

Whitefield, the prince of pulpit orators, is said to have 
taken lessons of Garrick, the actor. 

The consummate oratory of Henry Clay is a fair type of 
the best in American forensic eloquence. To a graduating 
class of law students he said, " I owe my success to one 
single fact, namely, that at an early age I commenced and 
continued for some years the practice of daily reading and 
speaking the contents of some book. It is to the early 
practice of this art of all arts that I am indebted for the 
primary and leading impulses that stimulated my progress 
and moulded my destiny." 

Beecher, the representative of American pulpit oratory, 
drilled three years under a skilled teacher, and continued it 
later in the theological seminary. He relates that he used 
to make the woods ring practising his declamations. 

Oratory was the ambition of Wendell Phillips, the prince 
of American orators, from his youth, and was indeed the 
study and practice of his whole life. 

We have selected the above instances from among the rep- 
resentatives of their time. Doubtless most of the distin- 
guished orators have been richly endowed by nature, but to 
this they have added diligent practice. It is noticeable that 
generally those who object most strongly to the cultivation of 
the art have the greater natural disqualifications, and yet 
assume the responsibilities of professional speaking. They 
may say with Antony, and more truthfully than he, " I am no 
orator"; but the fact that they undertake professionally to 
address audiences is an assumption of the office of oratory, 
and the audience has a right to expect a measure of ability. 

( 3 . ) Finally, the necessity of cultivating oratory is found in its 
relation to the press. As the personality of the man can never 

2 



1 8 VOCAL CULTURE AND EXPRESSION. 

be printed, as the magical influence of voice and action can 
never be put upon the printed page, as the flashing eye, the 
energy, the life of the speaker can never be shown upon 
paper, therefore must speech always remain superior to the 
press. 

Some people talk about the press usurping the orator's 
place, as though the two were rivals. Each has a peculiar 
mission of its own. Neither renders the other unnecessary. 
Indeed, I look upon the press as a valuable factor in creating 
a demand for better platform and pulpit oratory. The speak- 
ing world has yet to awaken more fully to the fact that the 
press is furnishing matter abundantly in the letter. The 
orator can never successfully cope with the press in merely 
furnishing facts. What the -orator wants in addition to, and 
as a complement of the letter, is " the spirit that makes 
alive." Well may the orator adopt Christ's proclamation, 
"I am come that ye might have life, and that ye might have 
it more abundantly." 

Wendell Phillips was called scores of times to deliver his 
lecture on the " Lost Arts " after it had been published. 

The minister, unskilled in oratory, delivering his sermons 
with his nose in his manuscript, or in a dull, uninteresting 
way, must bear in mind that the press has furnished, and is 
still furnishing more largely, sermons in the literal form, supe- 
rior to the average efforts of even strong preachers. More 
than one has been heard to say, " I can read sermons at 
home," "I would rather read at home than to hear Rev. Mr. 
Dull." Then must the orator call in the full resources of his 
art, and express the finer shades of thought and sentiment, 
and give more fully the truth as he has it infleshed in himself. 
He must make it easier and pleasanter for the average lis- 
tener to hear the truth than to read it. 

To allay any fears as to the claims of elocutionary study, 
we wish to say that no amount of diligence will accomplish 
natural impossibilities. " No amount of cultivation will make 



INTRODUCTION. 19 

a rose of a cabbage; but it will make a better cabbage." 
None of our powers are more susceptible of cultivation than 
those of the organs of expression. Every speaker's powers, 
such as they are, should be faithfully and conscientiously 
improved, though they may never measure with those of a 
Pitt or a Whitefield. 

I hope a fuller plea for the study may be found in the 
system presented. 

2. — Opinions of Distinguished Men. 

The Archbishop of York, speaking before King's College 
evening classes, said, " In this country and in this age, almost 
every great religious, political, and social movement is effected 
by the agency of public speaking, and the advantages of 
being well versed in the art, as well as in that of public read- 
ing, are every day becoming more apparent." 

Rev. Dr. Hall, of New York, says, "There is one accom- 
plishment in particular which I would earnestly recommend 
to you : cultivate assiduously the ability to read well. I stop 
to particularize this, because it is a thing so very much neg- 
lected, and because it is such an elegant and charming accom- 
plishment. Where one person is really interested by music, 
twenty are pleased by good reading. Where one person is 
capable of becoming a skilful musician, twenty may become 
good readers. Where there is one occasion suitable for the 
exercise of musical talent, there are twenty for that of good 
reading. 

" What a fascination there is in really good reading ! What 
a power it gives one ! In the hospital, in the chamber of the 
invalid, in the nursery, in the domestic and in the social cir- 
cle, among chosen friends and companions, how it enables 
you to administer to the amusement, the comfort, the pleas- 
ure, of dear ones, as no other accomplishment can ! No 
instrument of man's devising can reach the heart as does that 



20 VOCAL CULTURE AND EXPRESSION. 

most wonderful instrument, the human voice. It is God's 
special gift to his chosen creatures. Fold it not away in a 
napkin. 

" Did you ever notice what life and power the Holy Scrip- 
tures have when well read ? Have you ever heard of the 
wonderful effects produced by Elizabeth Fry on the criminals 
of Newgate by simply reading to them the parable of The Prod- 
igal Son ? Princes and peers of the realm, it is said, counted 
it a privilege to stand in the dismal corridors, among felons 
and murderers, merely to share with them the privilege of 
witnessing the marvellous pathos which genius, taste, and 
culture could infuse into that simple story." 

Dr. Holland says, " When a minister goes before an audi- 
ence, it is reasonable to ask and expect that he shall be 
accomplished in the arts of expression, that he shall be a 
good writer and speaker. It makes little difference that he 
knows more than his audience, is better than his audience, 
has the true matter in him, if the art by which he conveys 
his thought is shabby. There are plenty of men who can 
develop the voice, and so instruct in the arts of oratory 
that no man need go into the pulpit unaccompanied by 
the power to impress upon the people all of the wisdom that 
he carries." He also says, " Multitudes of young men are 
poured out upon the country, year after year, to get their living 
by public speech, who cannot even read well. The art of public 
speech has been shamefully neglected in all our higher training 
schools. It has been held subordinate to everything else, 
when it is of prime importance. I believe more attention is 
now paid to the matter than formerly. The colleges are 
training their students better, and there is no danger that too 
much attention will be devoted to it. The only danger is, 
that the great majority will learn too late that the art of oratory 
demands as much study as any other of the higher arts ; and 
without it, they must flounder along through life practically 
shorn of half the power that is. in them, and shut out from a 
large success." 



INTRODUCTION. 21 

The Hon. W. E. Dodge, in a public address, said that he 
had for years watched young ministers, and had been " dis- 
tressed to see in how many instances they have failed in this 
respect, being unable to make available the knowledge they 
had acquired by years of careful study. They had no power 
of voice, or style of delivery to make an impression on any 
audience, and for lack of this never attain any considerable 
success." 

3. — History of Elocution. 

If we may be permitted to speak of an eloquent monument, 
a speaking picture or statue, if it is at all true that " action 
speaks louder than words," then any means that expresses the 
products of heart and mind is eloquence. Then God is the 
primal orator, for in the beginning "God said, Let there be 
light, and there was light." He spake and " the heavens 
and the earth were created, the sea and all that in them 
is." 

Hebrew history is not without reference to the art of 
elocution, for Moses seeks to excuse himself from appearing 
before Pharaoh by saying, " O my Lord ! I am not eloquent; 
but I am slow of speech and of a slow tongue." At last 
Aaron is promised as a mouth-piece, and they enter upon the 
work of delivering their people. 

That the Egyptians knew the power of persuasive speech 
may be inferred from the practice of their courts of justice. 
The plaintiff and defendant wrote their statement and replies 
for the court, and the documents were submitted to the bench 
of thirty judges, who were presided over by an arch-judge. 
This method was adopted, it seems, because it was thought 
the arts of oratory cast a veil over the truth. Holmes says, 
" Schliemann's archaeological labors at Mycenae and Tyrius 
proved beyond dispute that Egypt was a fruitful source of 
knowledge of every kind to the Greeks. The Greek Hermes, 
' Interpreter,' was considered identical with the Egyptian 



22 VOCAL CULTURE AND EXPRESSION. 

Thoth, who was looked upon as the god of skilful speech or 
eloquence."* 

As no previous history records the cultivation of oratory as 
an art, Greece may be called itsjnrthplace j ind home^ Here 
it rose to its highest perfection ; from here its fame has spread 
in all the earth, till to-day the names of Aristotle, Demos- 
thenes, Pericles, are as familiar as the names of the leading 
statesmen of the present time. Notwithstanding their limited 
knowledge of the physics and physiology of the subjects, 
their treatises upon the art are valuable in many particulars. 
Plato's conception of sound and hearing is fanciful : " We 
may certainly conclude that voice (sound) is a shock trans- 
mitted through the ears to the soul by the air, the brain, and 
the blood, and that the motion thereof, which begins in the 
head and ends in the region of the liver, is hearing. When 
this motion is swift, the sound is acute ; when slow, grave. 
If the motion is regular, the sound is even and smooth ; if the 
opposite, harsh. A great motion gives a loud sound, the 
opposite a faint one." f 

Aristotle (384 B. C.) had a more perfect conception of the 
organs of voice. He states the larynx emits vowel sounds ; 
the teeth and lips, consonants. His treatise is elaborate. 
The different parts of the art were assigned to especial 
teachers, and prescribed physical and vocal practice for 
development of body and voice. They gave attention to the 
hygiene' of the voice, and established public contests in 
declamation. 

The genius of their free institutions, their taste for art, 
fostered the cultivation of this art of arts ; besides, the high- 
est places in the nation were possible only to eloquence. So 
eveiything conspired to make a race of orators. 
. j . 

* Gordon Holmes, L. R. C. P., " Vocal Physiology and Hygiene of the 
Voice. V 

T Holmes, " Vocal Physiology." 



INTRODUCTION. 23 

Rome borrowed her eloquence, her methods of cultivating 
it, from Greece, as she did her other arts and learning, till 
"victorious Rome was herself subdued by the arts of Greece." 

Republican Rome was well adapted to nurture oratory. 
Their patience and attention to minute particulars are surpris- 
ing to us of this age of hurry. Quintilian's " Institutes of 
Oratory " is a very elaborate treatise upon the art. At last 
oratory was abused ; the niceties of the art became fantastic, 
and finally declined with the Empire. 

Then the Christian church became the custodian of the 
art, and preserved and cultivated oratory. Chrysostom, the 
" golden mouth " of the fourth century, is familiarly known 
as the most distinguished orator of the early church fathers. 

After the darkness of the early Middle Ages, the revival of 
oratory began in Italy after the twelfth century, continuing to 
the present civilization. Crolius preceded Bossuet and Mas- 
sillon of France by nearly a century. 

Our attention is next attracted to the famous orators of 
Great Britain and Ireland, then to the distinguished examples 
of our earlier civilization. 

It cannot be said, however, that oratory has been generally 
or systematically cultivated in modern time. Professional 
speakers who have given attention to it are in the minority. 
This neglect is partially accounted for by the fact that, after 
the revival of letters, the world was busy acquiring knowl- 
edge, and then the art of printing was a convenient agent in 
discussion and in the dissemination of knowledge. 

We have not felt the necessity of cultivating the art ; we 
have waited for the leisure to attend to it as an accomplish- 
ment. Logically and historically, facts or knowledge must 
precede their use. Relatively we have the knowledge. It 
has been increased and disseminated, till now it seems to me 
oratory will have a chance, in its legitimate field, of making 
such skilful use of the facts that they shall be adapted to 
persuade. This latter function is the chief end of oratory. 



24 VOCAL CULTURE AND EXPRESSION. 

Treatises on the art have appeared from time to time, some 
having special value, but most of them touching only one 
phase of the subject and none possessing the merit of a com- 
plete and practical discussion. 

The subject, as presented by Delsarte, so far as our knowl- 
edge will permit us to judge, seems to have been a thorough 
discussion of the subject according to the scientific method. 

As it comes to us through his pupils, it is fragmentary and 
not unfrequently mystical. But for all these drawbacks, there 
is much in the analysis that is practical as well as suggestive. 

For years the teaching of oratory has been left quite gen- 
erally in the hands of charlatans and quacks. As a rule the 
responsibility of training in oratory has been assumed by 
those who had a measure of natural ability as readers or 
speakers, and have therefore presumed they could teach, 
though ignorant, and lacking in every qualification of the 
teacher. Many speakers and readers, unable to find other 
help, have gone to actors for instruction. That an artist is a 
great actor is no assurance that he is a good teacher. 

A better class of teachers are now entering the field. 
Long neglect, producing its race of incompetent speakers, 
seems about to make a favorable reaction. 

These facts, with the additional one that leading colleges 
and universities and men in professions are yearly giving 
increased attention to the subject, lead us to think that we 
are on the eve of a revival that shall make the cultivation of 
the art necessary and general. 

4. — The System of Oratory. 

Systems of oratory have been distinguished from one an- 
other, and the respective merits of each extolled, as though 
systems of oratory were a matter of invention and capable of 
indefinite multiplication. No wonder that laymen have been 
suspicious, and regarded systems of oratory as collections of 
tricks, or, at best, capable only of making unskilled mechanics. 



INTRODUCTION. 25 

Whatever may be said as to the excellence of any classifi- 
cation or arrangement, it should be distinctly understood that 
the true system of oratory is not the result of inventive genius. 
It does not depend upon the caprice of individuals. 

The fundamental principles of expression exist naturally, 
and may be discovered and classified. According to a law in 
expression, the falling inflection asserts ; the assertion may be 
of will, of knowledge, of authority. The rising inflection 
appeals ; the appeal may be to another's will or knowledge. 

The quality of voice indicates the character of emotion or 
quality of things, as in secrecy or fear the voice naturally 
taking the aspirated quality. The character of an event, 
whether important or trivial, is suggested by the great or 
small quality of voice. In attitude, conscious strength 
assumes weak positions, as in the case of the athlete, 
while conscious weakness assumes strong positions, as in 
the case of children and aged people, — putting their feet 
far apart for a wide base. These principles must form the 
normal standard to which all forms of expression are to be 
referred. 

That which appears in the consciousness is thought, 
emotion, will, — spiritual products. They must be material- 
ized before they can be communicated to others. These 
spiritual products may be measurably put in written form 
and address the eye, or they may be put in speech and action 
and address both ear and eye. To do this effectively is no 
easy task. The power of thought is God-given, but it must 
be cultivated. The power of expression is distinct from the 
power of thought ; but in many minds the two are confused 
and identical. As the ability of thinking is cultivated, so 
also is the power of expression. 

5. — Oratory as an Art. 
The use of the agents of expression is an art. The Greeks 
so understood it,, and compared oratory to sculpture and 



26 VOCAL CULTURE AND EXPRESSION. 

painting. Our English word "orator " is rather confusing. We 
sometimes apply the word to a man of genius, and speak of 
orator as we do of poet. The Roman understood orator in 
the official sense of pleader. The Greek use of the word 
'P/iZcoq, meaning speaker, is the clearest use of the term : then 
every speaker is more or less orator. 

Aristotle's definition of oratory is perhaps the clearest and 
most comprehensive, " The power of saying on every subject 
whatever can be found to persuade." Phocian's definition 
is, " The power to express the most sense in the fewest words." 
Quintilian calls it " the power of persuading." 

The subject will be considered as the art of expressing 

BY SPEECH AND GESTURE THAT WHICH IS IN THE CONSCIOUS- 
NESS. Very "plainly the object of the orator is to have others 
think as he thinks and feel as he feels, and through this to 
secure their action in a desired direction. 

The controlling principle of this instruction is utilitarian, — 
econo?7iy consistent with efficiency. The orator should know the 
power of every word, emphasis, inflection, act, and so use 
them that the truth he utters may be " understood, felt," 
by the audience. 

This instruction repudiates artificial rules, of which we have 
counted in one w r ork twenty-nine on one part of analysis. It 
discourages servile imitation, and does not attempt to tell a 
speaker when to strike attitudes, when to make gestures, when 
to thunder, and when to be calm. Artificial methods are an 
utter abomination. M. De Cormorin satirically puts it : 
" Be impassioned, thunder, rage, weep up to the fifth word 
of the third sentence of the tenth paragraph of the tenth leaf. 
How easy that would be ! Above all, how natural ! ' True 
oratory only tells a man how to do a thing ; the speaker him- 
self must do it when he must, not before. 

In man as we find him now, the functions of expression are 
impaired. Faulty habits of voice, inflection, and gesture have 
been taken on. Thought and emotion arise for utterance, the 



INTRODUCTION. 2J 

speaker seeks to express himself; the words are approxi- 
mately pronounced, and therefore all is not lost, but the 
speaker is controlled by some mannerism which thwarts the 
full expression of what is in his consciousness. Some speak- 
ers constantly give the rising inflection, leaving the audience 
in continued suspense. Others again repeat the " sledge- 
hammer " gesture, till the audience feels like the down man 
in a pugilistic encounter. 

The first effort of this instruction is directed to the free- 
dom of the student, to liberate him from vicious habits of 
voice and mannerisms of gesture. " I like to be free from 
all art or rules," says one ; that is, a freedom to indulge 
in mannerisms, however absurd or extravagant. But these 
same extravagances ride him like a nightmare. They " lead 
him captive at their will." He acknowledges his bondage, 
but calls it freedom. Art does not trammel. We plead for 
the gospel freedom that restrains from doing ill. 

Physical and vocal culture are fundamental. The agents 
of expression must not only be liberated, but developed. 
The muscular system must be developed symmetrically, the 
nervous system brought into harmonious action, in order to 
bring the physical apparatus into prompt and accurate re- 
sponse to the stimuli of thought and emotion. • 

We grant that the speaker must be a mechanic before he 
can b*e an artist. After a mechanical expertness, comes the 
habit of acting according to the principles of the art. Through 
the law of the persistency of habit, the speaker finally thinks 
no more of speaking normally than he does of constructing 
his sentences grammatically or rhetorically. The caution should 
be raised here that effective delivery cannot be secured in a 
few weeks' training. Many will spend years to acquire a 
tolerable ease in Greek or Latin composition, but complain of 
being mechanical in delivery after spending a month upon 
the subject, although a masterly use of expression may be as 
foreign as Sanskrit. The art of delivery is " no communica- 



28 VOCAL CULTURE AND EXPRESSION. 

ble trick." Those who have accomplished most at the art 
have been content to practise long and faithfully. 

One more caution. Avoid practising before an audience. 
Let your leading purpose before an audience be to give them 
the truth without studying the instrument of communica- 
tion. 

6. — Qualifications of the Orator. 

Under this head we can only hint at the orator's qualifica- 
tions, without pretending to give an adequate discussion of the 
subject. To many it may only serve as a reminder. 

A fuller discussion of expressive man will be found else- 
where. 

(i.) Character. — The first indispensable for an orator is 
noble character. Oratory is the expression of self. Oratory 
is the man. Man is true character. Character irresistibly 
impresses itself on others either favorably or unfavorably. 

(2.) Truth. — The orator must have the truth, whether he 
addresses a jury, speaks on the platform or from the pulpit; 
he should aim at truth, else he has no right to speak. 

(3.) Thorough Knowledge. — The orator should be 
"throughly informed." His knowledge of the subject 
should be exact, particular, broad. Of too many speak- 
ers Bassanio's criticism may be said, " He speaks an in- 
finite deal of nothing, more than any man in Venice. His 
thoughts are as two grains of wheat hid in two bushels of 
chaff." Generalities are shallow. 

(4.) Store of Facts. — He should keep the storehouse of 
his mind well filled with facts to make plain and enforce the 
truth. Out of the abundance of his store he should be able 
to " bring forth things new and old," to illustrate the truth, 
and reflect it from different angles of the subject. 

(5.) Memory is a valuable reliance of the speaker, espe- 
cially if he uses the extemporaneous or mixed method of ad- 
dress. Without a good memory, this manner of discourse is 



INTRODUCTION. 29 

quite impracticable. Unless the memory acts promptly to call 
up the plan and matter of discourse, the speaker will not only 
hesitate, but will also be subjective in the effort to call up what 
is needed, and thus fail in uttering the thought to the audi- 
ence. 

(6.) Tact. — Another valuable aid is taste and tact, (a) 
as to arranging the facts of discourse, and (b) in saying the 
right thing in the right place at the proper time. The 
audience is sometimes favorable to the truth and to the speaker; 
frequently it is not ; then the subject must be skilfully pre- 
sented. This does not imply trickery, but wisdom in present- 
ing the truth, so as to gain a favorable hearing. 

(7.) Good- Will. — The orator must have good-will toward 
his audience ; this will gain their good-will, — a most excellent 
starting-point. One would think that the compliments intro- 
ductory to speech, the introductory unpretentiousness of the 
orator, would finally wear out ; but they do not, if not over- 
done. 

(8.) Sincerity. — Again, the speaker must be sincere 
toward the truth, toward the audience. If he " handles -the 
truth deceitfully," or pretends what he really is not, though 
the audience may not be able to analyze it, the effort is shorn 
of part of its strength. If the orator is thoroughly sincere, he 
will be simple. The great orations bear this mark of sim- 
plicity. Sink forever the thought of eliciting the applause of a 
" great orator." Fenelon, in his Dialogue of the Dead, repre- 
sents Demosthenes as saying to Cicero, "You made the 
people say, ' How well he speaks ' ; I made them say, ' Let us 
march against Philip.' " Follow the advice so frequently given, 
to use simple words and simple construction. 

(9.) Logic should be faithfully studied ; not simply a 
smattering of it, acquired in an abstract way, but studied in 
relation to spoken discourse. 

(10.) Rhetoric. — The same instruction applies to the mas- 
tery of rhetoric. Discourse should be made with reference 



30 VOCAL CULTURE AND EXPRESSION. 

to oral delivery. Every rhetorical principle should be studied 
in relation to spoken discourse. 

(n.) Imagination. — Imagination is a most valuable fac- 
ulty of the orator. Bishop Butler^calls it "that most forward 
and obtrusive faculty." It should not usurp the place of 
logic or fact ; but it has a place in oratory that nothing else 
can supply. Imagination is the picture-making faculty, and 
in this respect co-operates with the language of gesture in 
making the facts real. 

Speakers instinctively say, " Now you see," or " Let us 
look at this," and the audience arouses for another look. 
This is imagination making real to the imagination. This 
faculty, naturally strong in some, may be cultivated by use. 
It is of vast advantage to the reader. Through its use scenes 
and events are called up and pictured with greater vividness. 

(12.) Know 'ledge of the Fine Arts. — These are related to 
oratory, as they are modes of expression. 

To express himself, the sculptor uses form ; the painter, 
color ; the musician, harmonic sound ; the architect, propor- 
tion. The art of oratory has some correspondence to all 
these arts. The correspondence may be studied to advan- 
tage, and the orator will always find help by being familiar 
with them. This analogy furnishes us with terms in oratory. 

In ordinary language, we speak of " building" a sermon, 
"making" a speech; all understand what we mean by the 
" outline " of a discourse, the " music " of an orator's delivery. 

We speak of the "florid " style, the "light and shade" of 
the orator's effort, the " color and tone," and his " form " of 
delivery. 

The art not only borrows from them, but lends to them in 
turn, so we have an "eloquent" statue, a "speaking" pic- 
ture, a "noted" building, "telling" more eloquent than 
words. 

(13.) It seems hardly necessary in this connection to 
recommend to all a familiarity with the best English classics. 



INTRODUCTION. 3 1 

Know the Bible and Shakespeare. These two books form 
a rich mine of wealth for the orator. 

Erskine's masterly use of language, for which he was es- 
pecially noted, is said to have been due to his familiarity with 
Shakespeare. A knowledge and happy use of Bible facts and 
illustration have been the strength of many an appeal at the 
bar, as well as in the pulpit. 

7. t— Conditions. 

Oratory has its favorable and unfavorable conditions. 
Speakers frequently fail, without being able to account for the 
failure. At another time everything seems to conduce to 
success. 

(1.) Occasion. — Occasion must exist for splendid oratory 
as it does for heroism ; but every speaker who desires to 
serve truth and who has something to say can make an occa- 
sion for usual, perhaps for unusual oratory. 

(2.) Good Health and Cheerful Mind, — Dyspepsia and 
other infirmities easily get into the voice. 

(3.) Pure Air. — The speaker should live in pure air and 
speak in pure air. Janitors are usually ignorant or careless 
upon this matter of ventilation. In most instances the speaker 
will be obliged to direct the janitor in this particular. The 
benefit of pure air to a tired audience as well as to a laboring 
speaker is generally acknowledged and quite as generally 
neglected. 

(See Respiration and Ventilation, Chapter III.) 

(4.) Clothing. — The neck dress should be worn loosely, 
else the vocal organs will be cramped, impeding their func- 
tion ; the blood-vessels of the neck will be gorged, producing 
hoarseness and sometimes chronic diseases of the throat. 
Lady readers and others of the fair sex who use their voice 
must learn that tight lacing is not only a crime against health, 
but a bar also to the best vocal function. 



32 VOCAL CULTURE AND EXPRESSION. 

(5.) Diet. — Public address should not be made immedi- 
ately after eating a full meal ; for the work of digestion and 
vocal effort is too much for the body to perform at one time. 
Moreover the full stomach prevents the diaphragm from 
descending to enlarge the vertical capacity of the thorax. 
But when feeling faint from lack of food, the speaker will 
not be able to speak as easily and with as much vitality as 
when no such want is experienced. 

(6.) Nostrums. — I should discourage the use of nos- 
trums to "clear" the voice. They are harmful to the organs, 
stimulating them unduly and inducing an over-supply of 
blood to these parts. The unusual supply of saliva is troub- 
lesome also in pronunciation. A skilful use of the voice 
needs no such doctoring. Even sipping water is to be dis- 
couraged. It is unnecessary in a proper use of the vocal 
organs. Diseases of the throat should receive the treatment 
of a skilful physician. 



8. — Reading and Speaking. 

The principles of expression in reading and speaking are 
the same. In reading, the thought and language of another 
are furnished ready to be expressed, but the artist must first 
make this language his own ere he can deliver it effectively, 
otherwise it will be a mere repetition of words. 

The reading of the large majority of persons is character- 
ized by lifelessness and monotony. Very little attention is 
paid to articulation and emphasis, less still to modulation and 
kind of voice. The reading of hymns, the Scripture, and the 
ritual by most ministers is ludicrous. Such reading is unprof- 
itable except to those bent on being benefited. 

The reader must think the thought of his author just as 
definitely, see the pictures just as vividly, as though he were 
giving his own production. 



INTRODUCTION. 33 

The kinds of reading to which the student's attention is 
called are the narrative, the oratoric, and the dramatic. 

(i.) The narrative is the simple conversational method of 
delivery. This method must lie at the base of all delivery. 
Its essential office is thought-expression, for the purpose of 
convincing. It is employed in presenting facts and in making 
one's self understood. It is distinctly didactic. 

(2.) The oratoric is a stronger effort, with every part en- 
larged. Its essential office is to express passion and emotion 
in addition to thought, for the purpose of moving others. It 
makes more use of inflection and different kinds of voice. 
In the oratoric, every feature of the conversational is en- 
larged, but when it loses the conversational element it may 
then be described by the words "spouting," "ranting," "preach- 
ing." The style is stilted and extravagant. In the best ora- 
toric efforts, the speaker must frequently recur to the ease of 
conversation. 

(3.) In dramatic expression, the reader or speaker assumes 
a personality or character not his own, and thinks and feels the 
thought and emotion of that ideal character and expresses them. 
The true dramatic artist is very thoroughly and genuinely, for 
the time, identical with the character he interprets. This does 
not imply that he loses his real identity or his own personality. 
If this new character becomes a habit, and then passes to real 
life, then the man is that new person. In this very way, men 
may and do become " different " from what they were. 

Any reader or speaker, then, who assumes to express how 
another thinks, feels, or acts under any given circumstance, is 
so far dramatic. For instance, if a speaker, narrating facts 
in which the indignation of some one else is spoken of, as- 
sumes to manifest that indignation, he is dramatic. 

The speaker or reader is "dramatic" when he "suits the 
action to the word " in representing the man of pride with a 
high head and haughty air, or when the traveller exposed to 
the storm is represented as cowering beneath its fury. 



34 VOCAL CULTURE AND EXPRESSION. 

The person who merely imitates another makes a caricature 
of the original. It is recognized, but as the ludicrous in it 
is inevitable, one laughs when he should weep. 

The question is asked, " How far should one be dramatic ? " 
Ordinarily one need but S7iggest the parts that are dramatic. 
In reading the discussion between Christ and the Pharisees, 
we presume the former to speak with thoughtful dignity, the 
latter with a sneer, fault-finding, and accusation. These 
moods may properly be suggested without attempting to speak 
just as Christ did or just as the Pharisee. Pure dramatic 
composition admits of the fullest impersonation. 

These different kinds of expression are not exclusive. 
Simple narrative must be more or less dramatic ; the oratoric 
must be conversational and dramatic ; the dramatic must not 
be without the oratoric and narrative elements. 

In reading, the following points should constantly be borne 
in mind : — 

i. Be thoroughly acquainted with what you are to read, if 
possible, that you may be free from the book. Hold the 
book up ; avoid bending the head down. 

2. Think the thought distinctly when reading. 

3. See the pictures of the language used. 

4. Think that you are giving it to the audience, not merely 
before them. 



PART I. 



VOCAL CULTURE AND EXPRESSION. 



VOCAL CULTURE. 



CHAPTER I. 

PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

In this art physical culture is one of the fundamentals. 
The student who really enjoys study, or who is goaded on by 
the necessity to be largely informed,, is strongly tempted to 
spend too much time over books, to the acquirement of knowl- 
edge, without due reference to its use or impartation. 

An inevitable accompaniment of this is the neglect of the 
body, so the " pale student" and the " scholar's stoop" have 
become familiar phrases. 

Other things being equal, vigorous thinking depends upon 
a vigorous body ; certainly a vigorous use of knowledge does. 
The dyspepsia of many gets into their written and spoken 
efforts. The disordered nervous system untunes speech, and 
makes hard work for the speaker. Physical and nerve weak- 
ness, especially, unmans the debater. The restless activity of 
the age afflicts the brain worker as well as others. The 
hurry of American life is the subject of comment by others 
as well as by ourselves. The rush to become wise is second 
only to the hurry to get rich. The annual summer vacation 
is a reaction of our mode of life, and as it is fashionable, no 
doubt will continue to work much good. But better than this 
yearly relaxation would be a regular and systematic attention 
to the needs of the body. 

The gymnasiums of the city increasing in number, and in 
the excellence of their management, with institutions for tech- 



38 VOCAL CULTURE AND EXPRESSION. 

nical and physical culture, are making physical development 
more possible. 

But the student's plea is, " I have no time for this, I have 
so much to study " ; and yet these same men are eloquent 
advocates of a Sabbath of rest, or earnest in labor reform, 
quoting statistics and arguing, rightly I think, that the artisan 
will have clearer brain, better-balanced nerves, and be capable 
of doing more in eight hours than in ten, and of accom- 
plishing more for his employer in six clays than in seven. 

Now physical recreation is of the nature of a rest, and 
recruits the tired brain-worker as cessation from manual 
employment recruits the tired hand-worker. 

The object of physical culture, as advised here, is not 
excessive development of any particular muscle for strength. 
The advantage aimed at is as follows : — 

i. General physical development to aid the vital functions. 

2. Special chest development for lung capacity. 

3. Development for erect carriage and strong bearing. 

4. Development of the muscles of respiration. 

5. Freedom from muscular rigidity, admitting of strong 
and graceful movements. 

The amount of exercise to be taken depends upon age, 
sex, condition of health, etc. Those prescribed here may be 
safely taken by all if conditions of health or individual pecul- 
iarities do not prevent. 

As the blood-vessels and cartilages begin to show signs of 
rigidity at forty, after this age the subject must be more care- 
ful as to how vigorously he exercises. 

Fifteen minutes, twice a day, devoted to the physical exer- 
cise, will bring good results, if well followed up. 

Physical development depends upon the following con- 
ditions : — 

1. Accuracy with which any given exercise is taken. 

2. The alternate tension and relaxation of the muscles, 
momentary rest alternating with action. 



VOCAL CULTURE. 39 

3. Repetition or frequency. Two hours' vigorous exer- 
cise taken once a month may do more harm than good. 

4. Ease or Rhythmical Movements. — Rigid constraint, 
constant tension, make hard work and prevent the develop- 
ment desired. Count during the movement. Be deliberate. 

Caution. — i. Avoid exercise immediately before or 
after a full meal. 2. Exercise in pure air. 3. After long 
periods of rest, approach the exercise gradually so as to pre- 
vent unnecessaiy lameness ; stop before fatigue. 

(For lists of gymnastic exercise, see Development, under 
Respiration, and Preparatory Exercises, under Gesture.) 



40 VOCAL CULTURE AND EXPRESSION. 



CHAPTER IT. 

THE PHYSICAL BASIS OF VOICE. 

Sound. — In order to find the scientific basis of voice, 
we make a brief study of the sensation of sound. Physical 
acoustics is a section of the theory of elastic bodies. Elastic 
bodies vibrating set the air in vibration, producing wave-like 
motions that reach to distant points. These wave-like motions 
radiate in all directions, and are similar to the agitation pro- 
duced by throwing a stone into a placid sheet of water. The 
air vibrations, if sufficiently rapid, striking upon the ear, pro- 
duce the sensation of sound. 

Sounds are distinguished as (a) musical tones and as (b) 
noises. Musical tones result from rapid periodic vibrations 
of sonorous bodies. Noises result from non-periodic vibra- 
tions. 

Musical tones are distinguished as to — 

i. Force or loudness. 

2. Pitch or relative height. 

3. Quality. 

Vibrations of sonorous bodies producing sound may be 
seen by the naked eye, felt as in touching a tuning-fork, and 
by mechanical contrivances their amplitude, form, and rapid- 
ity may be determined. 

Force or loudness of sound depends upon amplitude of 
vibration. The wider the vibration, the louder the sound. 

Pitch or place in the scale depends upon the rapidity or 
rate of vibration. The greater the number of vibrations in 



VOCAL CULTURE. 41 

a second, the higher the pitch. The highest audible number 
of vibrations is 38,000 per second, the lowest 20 per second ; 
from 40 to 4,000 (7 octaves) only are valuable for music or 
speech. The number of vibrations is very accurately deter- 
mined by means of an instrument called the syren, consisting 
of a perforated disk in rapid revolution. 

Quality is that peculiarity which distinguishes the musical 
tones of a flute from a violin, or that distinguishes different 
voices, and depends upon the form of vibration. 

A string or resonant body is found to vibrate not only the 
entire length ; but at the same time in sections which are 
aliquot parts of the whole. 

The sounds of these sectional vibrations, combined with 
the sound of the whole or prime vibration, give a compound 
tone that ordinarily reaches the ear as one tone. The tones 
of these sectional vibrations are called overtones or partials, 
and mingling with the tone of the prime vibration gives the 
quality of tone. The prime tone is generally the loudest and 
lowest, and names the pitch of the compound. The " upper 
partial tones " are harmonics of the prime. 

Compound Tones. — The most important of the series 
of these upper partial tones are as follows : — 

The first upper partial is an octave above the prime, and 
makes double the number of vibrations in the same time. 

The second upper partial is a twelfth above the prime, 
making three times the number of vibrations in the same time 
as the prime. 

The third upper partial is two octaves above the prime, 
with four times as many vibrations. 

The fourth upper partial is two octaves and a major third 
above the prime, with five times as many vibrations. 

The fifth upper partial tone is two octaves and a major fifth 
above the prime, with six times as many vibrations. 

The sixth upper partial is two octaves and a sub-minor 



42 VOCAL CULTURE AND EXPRESSION. 

seventh above the prime, with seven times as many vibra- 
tions. 

The seventh upper partial is three octaves above the prime, 
with eight times the number of vibrations. 

Many other partials occur in some compound tones, but 
always in the same relative jDosition. 

" Simple Tones have a very soft, pleasant sound, free 
from all roughness, but wanting in powec and dull at low 
pitches." 

" Musical Tones, which are accompanied by a moder- 
ately loud series of the lower upper partial tones, up to about 
the sixth partial, are more harmonious and musical. Com- 
pared with simple tones they are rich and splendid, while they 
are at the same time perfectly sweet and soft if the higher 
upper partials are absent." 

" If only the uneven particles are present the quality of 
tone is hollow, and when a large number of such upper par- 
tials are present, nasal. When the prime tone predominates 
the quality of the tone is rich or full ; but when the prime 
tone is not sufficiently superior in strength to the upper par- 
tials, the quality of the tone is poor or empty." 

" When partial tones higher than the sixth or seventh are 
very distinct, the quality of the tone is cutting and rough. 
The degree of harshness may be very different. When their 
force is inconsiderable the higher upper partials do not essen- 
tially detract from the musical applicability of the compound 
tones ; on the contrary they are useful in giving character and 
expression to the music."* 

It is found that one sounding body has the power of putting 
another body in vibration without being in contact with it. 
When the strings of two violins are in perfect unison, if the 
string of one is bowed the string of the other will be set in 
vibration. 

* Sensation of Tone: Helmholtz. 



VOCAL CULTURE. 43 

" Tuning-forks are the most difficult to set in sympathetic 
vibration. To effect this they must be fastened on sounding- 
boxes which have been exactly tuned to their tone. If we 
have two such forks of exactly the same pitch, and excite one 
by a violin bow the other will begin to vibrate in sympathy, 
even if placed at the farther end of the room, and it will con- 
tinue to sound when the first is damped. The astonishing 
nature of such a case of sympathetic vibration will appear, 
if we merely compare the heavy and powerful mass of steel 
set in motion with the light, yielding mass of air, which pro- 
duces effect by such small motive power that it could not stir 
the lightest spring which was not in tune with the fork. 
With such forks the time required to set them in full swing 
by sympathetic action is also cf sensible duration, and the 
slightest disagreement in pitch is sufficient to produce a sen- 
sible diminution in the sympathetic effect. By sticking a 
piece cf wax to one prong of the second fork, sufficient to 
make it vibrate once in a second less than the first, a differ- 
ence of pitch scarcely sensible to the finest ear, the sympa- 
thetic vibration will be w r holly destroyed."* 

Thus sympathetically the entire vocal passage, chest, and 
head reinforce the tones of the vocal bands. 

The Physical Value of Vowels. — One vowel sound is 
distinguished from another, though both have the same pitch 
and intensity. This fact was long a question of inquiry. Sir 
C. Wheatstone first stated the true theory, which was afterwards 
subjected to exhaustive study by Helmholtz. " The vibrations 
of the vocal bands associate with the resonant cavity cf the 
mouth, which can so alter its shape as to resound at will either 
the fundamental tones cf the vocal cords or any of their over- 
tones. With the aid of the mouth, therefore, we can mix 
together the fundamental tone and the overtones of the voice 
in different combinations. Helmholtz was able to imitate 

* Sensation of Tone. 



44 VOCAL CULTURE AND EXPRESSION. 

these tones by tuning-forks, and by combining them appro- 
priately together to produce the sounds of all the vowels." * 
We have this important proof that the musical and conse- 
quently the carrying quality of speech depends upon the vowel 
elements. 

*On Sound. 



VOCAL CULTURE. 45 



CHAPTER III. 

RESPIRATION. 

That part of respiration carried on by the lungs is natu- 
rally related to vocal effort, and its physiology and function 
should be understood. 

The lungs are two large sacks lying in the thoracic cavity, 
one on each side of the heart. They consist cf bronchial 
tubes, and their terminal air-cells, numerous blood-vessels, 
nerves, and lymphatics. The connective tissue binding these 
tubes and cells together is composed of highly elastic fibres. 
" Each lung is covered, except at one point, by an elastic 
serous membrane called the pleura, which adheres tightly to it. 
At the root of the lungs, the pleura turns back and lines the 
inside of the chest cavity."* This provision lessens friction 
between the chest walls and the lungs during the movements 
of respiration. 

The ramification of these bronchial tubes is tree-like. 

The trachia or windpipe, felt in the front part of the 
neck, " consists fundamentally of a fibrous tube in which car- 
tilages are embedded to keep it from collapsing." These car- 
tilaginous rings are horseshoe in shape, the round part being 
in front. The back part of the windpipe, against which the 
gullet lies, is not hard like the front, " and the absence there 
of these cartilages no doubt facilitates swallowing." 

The lower end of the windpipe branches off into two 
greater bronchi, which continue to separate into the lesser 



* Quotations in this and the succeeding chapter, marked with an aster- 
isk (*) are from the work of Dr. Martin on " The Human Body," which 
we have accepted as authority on the physiology and function of the re- 
spiratory and vocal apparatus. 



46 VOCAL CULTURE AND EXPRESSION. 

bronchi. At the upper part of the windpipe is situated the 
larynx, or voice-box ; above this we have the pharynx and 
mouth cavities connecting with the outer air. 

The breathing movements consist (a) of inspirations, 
during which the chest cavity is enlarged and fresh or oxygen- 
ated air enters the lungs, alternating with (b) expirations, in 
which the cavity is diminished and the air, burdened with 
carbon dioxide, is expelled from the lungs. 

The thorax, or chest, is supported by the framework 
afforded by the dorsal vertebrae, breastbone, and ribs. " Be- 
tween and over these lie the muscles, and the whole is covered 
air-tight by the skin externally." 

The Enlargement of the Thorax for Inspiration. — 

1. The Diaphragm is a strong, sheet-like muscle, arching 
up dome-like, separating between the chest and the abdominal 
cavities. Its muscular fibres radiate from the dome down- 
wards and outwards, and are attached to the breastbone, the 
lower ribs, and the vertebral column. By contraction the 
diaphragm sinks to a horizontal position, thus greatly increas- 
ing the size of the thorax vertically. 

2. The ribs slope downwards from the vertebral column 
to the breastbone. " The scalene muscles, three on each 
side, arise from the cervical vertebrae and are inserted into 
the upper ribs. The external intercostal lie between the ribs 
and extend from the vertebral column to the costal cartilages ; 
the fibres slope downward and forwards." 

" During inspiration the scalenes contract and fix the upper 
ribs firmly ; then the external intercostal shortens and each 
raises the rib below it." Thus the ribs are elevated, the breast- 
bone shoved out from the spine, and the capacity of the thorax 
enlarged from front back. Other muscles are employed, but 
chiefly in offering points of resistance to those already de- 
scribed. These are the principal ways of enlarging the chest, 
and require considerable muscular effort. 

Now, when the chest is enlarged, the space between the 



VOCAL CULTURE. 47 

lungs and sides of the chest forms a cavity which contains no 
air. The external air, with a pressure of 14.5 pounds on the 
square inch, rushes in when the glottis of the air-box is open, 
distending the lungs, just as an elastic bag suspended in a 
bottle may be made to distend and touch the sides of the 
bottle from which the air has been exhausted. 

Expiration. — In expiration, very little muscular effort is 
required. After inspiration, the muscles relax and the ster- 
num and ribs fall to their former position. The elastic ab- 
dominal wall presses the contained viscera against the under 
side of the diaphragm, arching it up. Thus the air is sent 
out in passive breathing most largely by the elasticity of the 
parts stretched in inspiration, rather than by special expira- 
tory muscles. 

In the forced breathing of vocal effort, the muscles of expi- 
ration assist in the expulsion of air. "The main expiratory 
muscles are the internal intercostal, which lie beneath the ex- 
ternal, between each pair of ribs, and have an opposite direc- 
tion, their fibres running upwards and forwards." The inter- 
nal intercostal, contracting, pull down the upper ribs and 
sternum, and so diminish the size of the thorax from front 
back. 

At the same time the lower ribs and breastbone are pulled 
down by a muscle running in the abdominal wall from the 
pelvis to them. " At the same time, also, the abdominal mus- 
cles contract and press the walls of that cavity against the 
viscera, force the diaphragm to arch up, and lessens the cav- 
ity from up down." 

In violent inspiration many extra muscles are called into 
play, chiefly as points of firm resistance, or otherwise assisting 
the usual muscles of inspiration. 

In violent expiration, also, many other muscles may co-oper- 
ate with the usual muscles, tending to diminish the thoracic 
cavity. 

Kinds of Breathing. — The breathing that brings the 



48 VOCAL CULTURE AND EXPRESSION. 

upper part of the chest into the greatest action, and lifts the 
clavicles or collar-bones excessively, is called "clavicular 
breathing." It is readily seen that the lungs in this kind of 
breathing can only be partially filled, as the lower part of the 
chest is still contracted. 

When breathing is carried on by action of the ribs, it is 
then called " costal " or " chest breathing." Tnis, like " clavic- 
ular breathing," does not admit of the lungs being fully dis- 
tended. 

That breathing which brings the diaphragm into action in- 
dicated by the external movement of the upper part of the 
abdomen outward, is called " diaphragmatic," " abdominal," 
or "deep breathing." This fills the lungs completely, and is 
evidently the normal breathing. Many physiologists have 
taught and still teach that women naturally use the chest 
breathing, while men and children naturally use the ab- 
dominal. 

Dr. Martin, among the first ranks of scientific specialists, 
says : " In both cases the diaphragmatic breathing is the most 
important. Women are again warned of the danger and folly 
of tight lacing, which prevents natural breathing."* 

" Diaphragmatic " breathing with the " chest " breathing is 
known as "compound" breathing. This gives the greatest 
lung capacity, and at the same time makes possible the use 
of the muscles of expiration in the forced breathing of vocal 
effort. Very clearly, then, diaphragmatic or abdominal breath- 
ing, aside from its relation to health, is indispensably neces- 
sary to the speaker. Without it, he will " run out " of breath 
frequently, and find it impossible to project strong tone. 

Quantity of Air Breathed. — The average number of 
inspirations of a person sitting quietly, and not knowing that 
his breathing is under observation, is found to be fifteen per 
minute. After every ordinary expiration, the lungs still retain 

* Human Body. 



VOCAL CULTURE. 49 

about 200 cubic inches of air. At every breath 30 cubic inches 
(a little over a pint) additional are taken in. This surplus 
is again sent out in expiration. In each minute a man breathes 
450 cubic inches of air. In twenty-four hours the quantity 
would be 648,000 cubic inches (22,320 quarts), weighing 
about 28.7 pounds.* 

Changes in Breathed Air. — Expired air is vitiated to 
the extent of more than four per cent. ; this, mixed with three 
times its volume of pure air, vitiates the whole to the extent 
of one per cent., and is no longer respirable for any length 
of time with safety. In order to have air to breathe fairly 
pure, every man should have for his own allowance a space 
of about 800 cubic feet, and at the very least this should be 
renewed at the rate of one cubic foot per minute. At least 
five times this supply of fresh air is necessary to keep free 
from odor the room inhabited by one adult. 

Ventilation. — The necessity of thorough ventilation is 
very clearly seen by this exhibition : A board about four inches 
wide fixed under the lower sash, and the window shut down 
on it, will give ventilation if no other means are provided. 



*"The capacity of the chest, and therefore of the lungs, varies much in 
different individuals, but in a man of medium height there remains in the 
lungs, after the most violent possible expiration, about 100 cubic inches of 
air, called the residual air. After an ordinary expiration there will be, in 
addition to this, about as much more supplemental air, the residual and 
supplemental together forming the stationary air, which remains in the 
chest during quiet breathing. In an ordinary inspiration 30 cubic inches 
of tidal air are taken in, and about the same amount is expelled in nat- 
ural expiration. By a forced inspiration, about 98 cubic inches of comple- 
mentalair can be added to the tidal air. After a forced inspiration, there- 
fore, the chest will contain 228 cubic inches of air. The amount which 
can be taken in by the most violent possible inspiration, after the strong- 
est possible expiration, that is, the supplemental, tidal, and complemental 
air together, is known as the vital capacity. For a healthy man 5 feet 8 
inches high, it is about 225 cubic inches, and increases about nine cubic 
for each inch of height." 



50 VOCAL CULTURE AND EXPRESSION. 

Fresh air comes in between the sashes, the current is directed 
upward, preventing a draught upon any one in the room. 

How to Breathe. — Breath may be taken through the 
open mouth, or through the nostrils, the mouth being closed. 
Breathing to sustain nature's functions, to oxygenate blood 
and carry off waste matter, should be carried on through the 
nostrils. Premature decay, disease, no doubt, frequently are 
the penalty of habitual mouth breathing. George Catlin, the 
great traveller among the American Indians, has a very val- 
uable book on this subject, entitled, " Shut your Mouth," 
showing the vital importance of nostril breathing, as related 
to hygiene. His statistics of comparative mortality in certain 
diseases make an interesting showing in favor of the nostril- 
breathing savage, compared with the mouth-breathing white 
man. He would have the legend, Shut your Mouth, written 
on every bedpost in the land. 

In mouth breathing, (i) the moisture and liquid of the 
mouth is carried off, instead of being retained to cleanse the 
cavities by the processes of solution; (2) cold air is taken 
immediately upon the lungs, when it would have been 
warmed by traversing the nasal cavities, before reaching 
the delicate tissue of the bronchial tubes. The philosophy of 
holding a handkerchief over the mouth is, that it compels 
nostril breathing ; (3) noxious particles are taken down into 
the throat, and easily assimilated, when they might have been 
arrested by the hairs of the nasal cavities and expelled. 

Forced Breathing. — Breathing during the process of 
vocal effort, however, must be carried on largely through 
the mouth, as it can be done so much more quickly during the 
rapid movement of utterance. The speaker should keep the 
mouth shut when possible, and breathe through the nostrils. 

Development. — The student's effort should be to secure 

(a.) The diaphragmatic breathing. 

(&.) Chest development. 

(c.) Lung expansion. 

(</.) Breath control. 






VOCAL CULTURE. 51 

Practice. — i. Diaphragmatic breathing should be not 
only under control, but established as a habit ; for it gives 
greater lung capacity, strength to project the voice, and better 
breath control. 

Exercise i. Exhaust the lungs slowly, by an effort that 
flattens or " draws in " the walls of the abdomen, especially 
in front ; now breathe in slowly, directing the air to the base 
of the lungs, pressing the walls of the abdomen out, and 
keeping the collar bone (upper part of the chest) from raising ; 
follow by costal breathing. 

As a practice, diaphragmatic breathing is facilitated by lying 
upon the back ; also by keeping the fingers against the upper 
part of the abdomen (in front) during respiration ; this culti- 
vates consciousness in the locality ; now inhale against the 
fingers and expel from behind them. 

Lung Expansion. — Lung capacity can be increased by 
enlarging the chest capacity. 

The late Dr. Guilmette showed us several photographs of 
himself taken at different periods of his life. The first, taken 
in his younger days, showed the shoulders bent forward, the 
chest flat, and the general appearances indicated a delicate 
man. The other photographs showed the process of develop- 
ment after he began practice until the time he stood before 
us, erect, with an astonishingly deep and broad chest. He 
could inhale three hundred and eighty cubic inches at one 
breath ; his voice was immense. 

Exercise 2. Primary attitude (weight on balls of feet); 
active chest (chest lifted and projected) ; hands open in front 
of face, backs from face ; bring the arms back and down, with 
firm effort and closed fist; the face of the wrist will now be 
out and the forearm vertical. 

Exercise 3. Inhale dsep ; hands on ch^st ; elbows level 
with shoulders ; now give the chest light percussive taps ; this 
effort bounces the air into the distant air-cells. 

Exercise 4. Erect, active chest ; deep inhalation. Throw 



52 VOCAL CULTURE AND EXPRESSION. 

the hand vigorously forward, horizontal and level with the 
shoulder, backs of hands up ; feel the tension of the muscles 
on upper back and shoulderblades. Keeping the arms ex- 
tended, turn the wrists up, clench the fists ; while turning, 
bring the arm back and down ; now the elbows are at the 
side, the fist level with the waist and thrown out. The 
muscles of lower chest and abdomen are developed by this 
latter movement. 

Exercise 5. Knead the chest by putting the hands as far 
up under the armpits as possible and then squeezing the 
chest. This loosens the articulations at the sternum and 
vertebrae, allowing the ribs at the same time to elevate 
themselves more at a right angle, thus giving greater chest 
capacity. 

Exercise 6. Distend the lungs with deep, full breath ; hold 
breath. Upon the principle that heat expands, the air held 
in the lungs increases in bulk and distends the lungs, as the 
air in a bladder when warmed distends the bladder. 

The heat of the body at the heart is about no°. The air 
when taken in, only about 70 Fahrenheit; when expelled, 
97 Fahrenheit, allowing great increase in bulk by expansion. 
We should begin the exercise by holding ten seconds and in- 
creasing gradually. Divers in the South Sea islands can hold 
their breath for three minutes. 

Exercise 7. Prolonged breathing while running and walk- 
ing. This exercise is said to have been much practised by 
Demosthenes. 

Breath Control. — The importance of controlling the 
breath so that it shall be economically expended, and vocal 
effort made with as little friction and fatigue as possible, can- 
not be over-estimated. 

Many speakers have the faulty habit of "running out of 
breath." This should never occur, even in the most impas- 
sioned discourse or utterance. 

Another faulty habit to be overcome, is the most vicious 



VOCAL CULTURE. 53 

one of using only the top part of the lungs, with a rigid mus- 
cular exertion. Accompanying this use of the vocal appa- 
ratus is the high, narrow tone so disagreeable to the ear. 
The action in the use of the breath should begin at the dia- 
phragmatic region. The power to propel the voice should 
come from the expiratory muscles. 

Strength of voice and control of breath depend upon the 
development, contractibility, and elasticity of the muscles 
of respiration, especially upon the control and development of 
the expiratory muscles. The diaphragmatic and abdominal 
muscles contract, forming a solid floor at the base of the 
chest, that, piston-like, follows up the emptying of the lungs. 
This solidifies the vocal effort, and is very important. 

Exercise 8. Diaphragmatic resistance. 

(i.) Place the hands circling the region just below the 
floating ribs, thumbs toward the back. Now make a con_ 
tinuous muscular effort, without breathing, resisting the 
hands. 

(2.) Place the hands in front, the fingers pressing on the 
region of the diaphragm ; make muscular resistance. 

(3.) Place the half-fist on the region midway ; muscular 
resistance as above. Practise 1, 2, and 3 with continuous 
breathing, also with sudden breathing. 

Exercise 9. Extend the hands as far over the head as possi- 
ble, reaching with tips of fingers; now bend body forward, 
reaching to the floor with palms of hands ; knees unbent ; let 
hands fall ; bend back ; knees bent forward to preserve 
balance. 

Exercise 10. Hands upon the hips for support, thumbs to 
back, bend body forward, and rotate clear around on the axis 
of the hip joints. 

Exercise n. Hands hanging; flex to right, to left, without 
stooping, but stretching while flexing. 

Exercise 12. Inhale as slowly as possible; hold the breath 
(lungs distended) as long as possible ; now exhale as slowly 



54 VOCAL CULTURE AND EXPRESSION. 

as possible. Time this exercise and witness the increased 
ability. Avoid prolonging the exercise to discomfort. ' 

Other exercises for breath control during vocal effort will 
be given farther along. 






VOCAL CULTURE. 55 



CHAPTER IV. 

THE INSTRUMENT OF VOICE. 

During expiration, the breath, forced through the chink 
between the approximated vocal bands, sets them in vibration. 
Voice is the sound caused by the vibration of these bands. 
All animals with a larynx are capable of voice. 

The voice has been compared to all kinds of musical 
instruments. It is generally classed among the reed variety, 
but as it combines so many excellences that others do not 
possess, it cannot be described by being placed in any cate- 
gory of manufactured instruments. 

Physiology and Anatomy of the Vocal Apparatus. 
— The instrument of voice consists of 

1. The lungs. 

2. The muscles of respiration, especially the muscles of 
expiration : (a) the diaphragmatic muscle, (J?) the abdominal 
and the internal intercostal. 

3. The trachea. 

All these have been previously described. 

4. The larynx, containing the vocal bands. 

5. The pharynx, the mouth, and nasal cavities. 

The larynx is a prominence on the front part of the throat, 
sometimes called "Adam's apple," and has a framework of 
nine cartilages, bound together by joints and membranes. 
Muscles attached move these cartilages in relation to one 
another. 

Quality of voice depends primarily upon the size of the 
larynx, or in other words, upon the length of the vocal cords. 

Modification of the voice, as to pitch, depends upon (a) the 



56 



VOCAL CULTURE AND EXPRESSION. 



approximation and separation and {b) upon the tension of the 
vocal bands. 

Control of the vocal column, of the stroke of the glottis 
(so called), and of vowel explosion depends upon the function 
of these bands. 

THE FRAMEWORK OF THE LARYNX. 

Cs 




From " The Human "Body," by Dr. Martin. 

Fig. — The more important cartilages of the larynx from behind : t, 
thyroid; Cs, its superior, and Ci, its inferior, horn of the right side; **, 
cricoid cartilage ; f Arytenoid cartilage ; Pv, the corner to which the pos- 
terior end of vocal cordis attached; Pm, corner on which the muscles 
which approximate or separate the vocal cords are inserted ; Co, cartilage 
of Santorini. 



The epiglottis is a cartilage that covers the entrance to the 
larynx during the act of swallowing. 

The vocal bands (ordinarily called vocal cords) are liga- 
ments, elastic, and of a whitish color, about three fourths of 
an inch long in adult males and about one half of an inch in 
females. 



VOCAL CULTURE. 



57 



The most important muscles of the larynx are : — 



The posterior crico- 
arytenoidei. 



Opening the 
r ocal chink. 



The lateral crico-arytenoidci and the Closing 

arytenoideus, assisted by the \ the 

thyro-arytenoidei. vocal chink. 



Governing the Pitch of the Voice. 

The crico-thyroidei assisted ] Stretching 

by the \ the 

posterior crico-arytenoidci. J vocal ligaments. 



The thyro-arytenoidei. 



] Slackening 

\ the 

J vocal ligaments. 



Name. 



The crico-arytenoi- f 
dei posterior. 



MUSCLES OF THE LARYNX. 

governing size of the glottis. 

Attachment. 

To back of cricoid 



i cartilage and to aryte- 
noid. 



Effect. 
Pull back and down 
the muscular proc- 
esses of the arytenoi- 
dei, which rotate and 
widen the glottis. 



The lateral 
arytenoidei. 



To side of cricoid 
cartilage, inner sur- 
face ; run up and back <, 
to muscular processes 
of aryt. cartilage. 



Pull down and for- 
ward, the muscular 
processes of the aryte- 
noidei rotate, the vo- 
cal processes go in and 
up, and narrow the 
glottis. 



53 



VOCAL CULTURE AND EXPRESSION. 



Both acting together neutralize the result ; the arytenoidei 
are pulled down and out, off the cricoid cartilage, 
the condition of the vocal cords in quiet breathing. 



This is 



TENSION OF THE VOCAL CORDS. 



Name of Muscle. 



The crico-thyroidei, 

assisted by the poste- 
rior crico-arytenoidci. 



Attachment. 



Cricoid and thyroid, 
over cricoid and thy- 
roid membrane, and 
are attached to the 
posterior crico-aryte- 



noidei. 



Effect. 



The thyroid carti- 
lages, to which the 
front ends of the vocal 
cords are attached, arc 
pulled down .stretching 
the vocal cords, if the 
arytenoid cartilages at 
the same time be kept 
from slipping forward 
by the muscles behind. 



Thyro-arytenoidei. 



The thyroid lies on 
each side of the elas- 
tic folds of the vocal | Pull the thyroid car- 
cords. In front at- -j tilage up, and thus re- 
tached to thyroid, and lax the vocal cords. 
behind to the aryte- 
noid. 



t,— Thyroid cartilage. 

c, — Cricoid cartilage. 

v, c, — Vocal cords (bands). 

The crico-thyroid muscle, contracted, 
pulls t to f, if the arytenoid cartilage be 
kept from slipping forward at the same 
time. The vocal bands are stretched. 

The thyro-arytenoid muscle antagonizes 
the crico-thyroid, and brings the thyroid 
cartilage, if the latter be held firm, to its 
position at /, relaxing the vocal bands. 



Hsf 



-Pi 






ft 



VOCAL CULTURE. 



59 



THE MUSCLES OF THE LARYNX. 
From "The Human Body." 




The larynx viewed from its pharyngeal opening. The back wall of the 
pharynx has been divided and its edges (n) turned back. i. Body of 
hyoid; 2. Its small, and 3. Its great horns; 4. Upper and lower horns 
of thyroid cartilage ; 5. Mucous membrane of front of pharynx, covering 
the back of the cricoid cartilage ; 6. Upper end of gullet ; 7. Windpipe, 
lying in front of the gullet; 8. Eminence caused by cartilage of Santorini, 
9. Eminence caused by cartilage of Wrisberg, both lie in 10. The aryteno- 
epigloitidean fold of mucous membrane, surrounding the opening [aditus 
laryngis) from pharynx to larynx, a. Projecting tip of epiglottis ; c. The 
glottis, the lines leading from the letter point to the free vibrating edges 
of the vocal cords, b' . The ventricles of the larynx; their upper edges, 
marking them off from the eminences b, are the false vocal cords. 



6o 



VOCAL CULTURE AND EXPRESSION. 




OPENING OF THE GLOTTIS. 

| 4 ' |& 




A, image of the larynx in vocalization ; B, image of the larynx in respi- 
ration ; 3, 3, thyroid cartilage; 4, epiglottis; 5, 5, vocal cords; 7, 7, ven- 
tricular bands. 

During speech the movement of the larynx as a whole is 
frequently made up and down, varying the length cf the vocal 
column, somewhat on the principle of the trombone. 




Section of the Mouth and Throat. 

T, the tongue; V, vocal passage ; H, hard palate ; S, soft palate; A, 
air passage ; B, uvula ; E, epiglottis ; O, Oesophagus ; N, trachea ; C, 
vocal cord ; L, larynx. 



VOCAL CULTURE. 6 1 

The larynx is attached to the hyoid (tongue) bone and, of 
course, is moved somewhat by the action of the tongue. It is 
also moved up and down by the extrinsic muscles of the 
larynx. It is lowest in position in " oo " and highest in 
" ee " ; it goes down during inspiration, and also as the pitch 
of the voice goes down in the scale. It rises during expira- 
tion and in high pitch. 



62 VOCAL CULTURE AND EXPRESSION. 



CHAPTER V. 

VOCAL DEVELOPMENT. 

We have seen that the vocal function depends upon mus- 
cular action, and is under the control of the will. Practice 
then for the development of the voice is as feasible as prac- 
tice for the development of the biceps, or for skill in finger- 
ing a musical instrument. 

While the powers cf the voice are improvable, development, 
of course, is subject to natural limitations. No speaker need 
lament that he has a poor voice ; for if he is willing to do the 
drudgery of practice, he may have a passably good one. 
Those who have the best voices cannot afford to wait upon 
nature's gift. No singer attempts his profession till he has 
practised long upon the cultivation of his voice. Why should 
the speaker ? 

We quote from Legouve's " Art of Reading " : — 

" The organ of the voice is not merely an organ ; it is really 
an instrument, just as much as a piano is an instrument. On 
leaving the hands of a skilful manufacturer, a piano is an 
instrument as complete and perfect as human skill can make 
it, and the sounds it gives forth are as harmonious and cor- 
rect as artist hand can produce. But the little piano we re- 
ceive from mother nature is very far from being in such a 
state of perfection. Some of its strings are wanting alto- 
gether ; some of its sounds are quite discordant ; some of 
its notes are absolutely false ; so that by the time we come 
to be a voice-pianist, we have got to be not only a player, but 
also a manufacturer, a repairer, a tuner, — that is to say, we 
ourselves are obliged to complete, harmonize, equalize, ad- 
just, and tune our instrument." 



VOCAL CULTURE. 6$ 

In discussing vocal culture, we will be obliged to include 
more than is put in the definition of voice previously given, 
for we must consider its qualities as modified by the cham- 
bers of the vocal passage. 

Breath Control. — As voice is only possible during forced 
breathing, and as voice production depends so much upon 
breath control, we naturally consider this first. 

We have already discussed respiration, giving the different 
ways of taking breath. Here again we insist upon the neces- 
sity of at once getting control of the deep or diaphragmatic 
breathing. 

The inflated lungs should be strongly grasped, and the 
power to expend the breath be under the control of the 
speaker. Avoid collapsing suddenly, and thus wasting the 
breath ; but establish the habit of noiselessly filling the lungs, 
and of keeping a full supply on hand. See chapter on respi- 
ration for technical practice. 

Attack. — Too frequently the vocal cords are not closed 
as promptly and accurately as they should be, and we have 
the effect of "gliding," instead of a definite stroke or explo- 
sion. This relaxed or uneducated action of the vocal cords, 
lacking control of the vocal column, has been compared to 
smoke lazily winding out of the top of a chimney instead of 
being controlled and directed, as a nozzle of a hose controls 
and directs the column of water. 

Dr. Guilmette gave the class the syllable "ung" to be ex- 
ploded on different pitches , make the stroke firm and clear. 
Practise : up, oo, oh, oh, ah, ah ; his, him, homely, hospital ; 
take any selection, pronouncing the words with vigor. 

Qualities of Voice. 

Strength. — Strength of tone, as we have seen, results 
from amplitude of vibration, and this, in turn, depends upon 
the force of expiration out of well-filled lungs. Seeking for 
strength, many speakers "grasp" the throat, constrict the 



64 VOCAL CULTURE AND EXPRESSION. 

muscles of the fauces and larynx, giving that unpieasant 
squeezed sensation, and irritating the throat. This vicious 
habit is a source of the disease called " clergyman's sore 
throat." The muscles of the throat should be relaxed, and 
the motor power gotten from the diaphragmatic and other 
muscles of expiration. 

Practice. — Instead of working for loudness, think of solid- 
ity. Use the dynamic method of exploding the vowels ah, oo, 
o, in pronouncing words. Cultivate intensity. 

Resonance. — In the discussion under the "Physical 
Basis of Voice," we have seen that bodies in vibration are 
re-enforced by other bodies of the same pitch and by upper 
partial tones. The chest, throat, head, and lining membrane 
of the entire vocal passage re-enforce the vibration of the 
vocal cords, giving the quality we call resonance. Again the 
ventricles between the true and false vocal cords, the pharynx, 
the mouth, and the nares form chambers of resonance that 
can be tuned to any pitch. This interesting fact was the 
subject of lengthy experiment by Helmholtz and others. In 
the late Boston University School of Oratory, the class had 
the pleasure of seeing Mr. Alex. Graham Bell demonstrate 
this fact by a skilful adjustment of the vocal cavities accord- 
ing to the principles of " visible speech," and then producing 
sound by tapping on the throat. He placed a lead-pencil 
across the larynx, altering the cavity of the mouth to suit, by 
changing the position of the tongue, then snapping the lead 
pencil with his finger, without vocal effort ran up and down 
the scale with apparent facility. 

Practice. — Great care should be exercised to keep the 
vocal parts healthy. Congestion, condition of dryness, pre- 
vents the full development of the parts. 

Practise the exercises for chest development, lung expan- 
sion, thoracic flexibility, as found in the chapter on " Respi- 
ration." Be careful to relax the throat muscles, as all rigidity 
of these muscles prevents resonance. 



VOCAL CULTURE. 6$ 

Body. — That quality of voice that may be described as 
body is the result of deep resonance, and includes the lower 
tones of the scale. 

Practise exploding oo, o, a; deep inhalation; round the 
lips, prolong these sounds, especially the "oo," for this is the 
lowest tone in the scale. The effect upon the ear is the 
round, full quality. Take deep inhalation, speak : — 

" Ye crags and peaks, I 'm with you once again ! 
I hold to you the hands you first beheld, 
To show they still are free. Methinks I hear 
A spirit in your echoes answer me, 
And bid your tenant welcome home again ! " 

Speak slowly in monotone, with prolonged effort and 
exhausting the lungs with the effort. The effect upon the 
ear is the full, diffusive quality. Practise, — 

" O thou that rollest above, 
Round as the shield of my fathers," 

with relaxed throat muscles, round mouth, full lungs, dia- 
phragmatic action, with something of bombast in tone ; do not 
force the breath. Think of its resonating in the cavities. 
Let the mind be in a generous attitude. The effect upon the 
ear will be a deep, full resonance. 

Brilliancy is the resonance of the upper part of the vocal 
passage, especially the head and face. This is accomplished 
largely by bringing the tone front. That vicious habit of 
ventriloquizing, and of allowing the tone to " focus " far back 
in the fauces, must be overcome. 

It has been observed that in savage races the elements of 
speech are chiefly guttural. Brutes have only voice, and it is 
confined to the throat. As races advance in civilization, the 
front elements of speech predominate. Elements that should 
be formed in the front cavities, when permitted to fall back, 
sometimes indicate physical weakness, as in the case of sick 
people or invalids. Often it is a vicious habit, the result of 

5 



66 VOCAL CULTURE AND EXPRESSION. 

relaxing the muscles of respiration and allowing the voice to 
fall back. It is especially marked in some kinds of affecta- 
tion, again in patronizing goody-goody talk. 

Practice. — (a.) Prolong the "m" sound, lips lightly 
touching; imagine the tone front. {&.) Pronounce neatly 
the syllable "bim," " Many men need more money," "Most 
any further margin merits failure." Be careful to hold all the 
syllables from falling back in the throat, especially the final 
syllable of each word; let the pronunciation be firm, but easy 
and clean-cut. 

For face resonance, practise " n " (organs in " n " position), 
as "m" above is practised. Sound " ne," " le," prolong. 
The vowel a locates what we might call the middle resonance. 

Practice. — Sound a, prolong; "They may pay." 

One point of resonance does not necessarily exclude the 
other points ; the brilliancy of head and face resonance does 
not exclude the fulness of throat and chest resonance. In 
the perfect voice they blend into a perfect whole. The listen- 
ing ear would locate the perfect tone when sounded between 
the eyes. 

Chant, or better, speak on monotone, carefully moulding 
and prolonging vowels, the tone formed front : — 

Rise, like a cloud of incense from the earth ! 
Thou kingly spirit, throned among the hills, 
Thou dread ambassador from earth to heaven, 
Great hierarch ! tell thou the silent sky, 
And tell the stars, and tell yon rising sun, 
Earth, with her thousand voices, praises God. 

Purity. — By purity of voice, we understand freedom from 
those vicious qualities, the result of faulty use of the vocal 
organs. Faults, previously enumerated, might be classified 
here ; but as they have been properly treated, we will name 
the following in this category : — 

(i.) Denial quality results from keeping the teeth closed 



VOCAL CULTURE. 67 

and allowing the air to beat againct them. The effect upon 
the ear is that dull and close sound. 

Practice. — Prolong " m " (as before given) ; m -|- a, glide 
from m to a, then to a ; m -{- a, gliding from the first sound 
to the second. Open the mouth wide, and " think" the tone 
front. 

Without vocal effort, practise letting the jaw fall freely, 
opening the mouth wide ; and with vocal effort, practise " fah, 
lah, etc.," uttering rapidly and letting the jaw fall easily and 
generously. In separating the jaws, be careful to avoid thrust- 
ing the lower jaw (chin) forward. A straight edge placed 
against the chin, lips, and beneath the nose will guide ; in 
opening, the chin should fall away from the straight edge. 

Practise reading, exaggerating the opening of the mouth. 

This fault of keeping the teeth closed is very common, and 
should be constantly guarded against. Frequently it arises 
from a lazy way of articulating ; but more frequently it is the 
force of habit, that vigor alone fails to relieve. In the pro- 
nunciation of " e,'\ the closest vowel, the teeth should show 
opening. 

(2.) Nasality results from allowing the veil of the palate 
to hang down, closing the mouth aperture and permitting the 
air to strike against the veil or find its way into the nasal cav- 
ities. This fault is too common. Mr. Spurgeon, in address- 
ing a class of young ministers, censured this vicious habit, 
telling them that physiologists were agreed that the nose was 
not an organ of speech, but that it was made to smell with. 
Only " m " and " n " naturally pass through the nose. 

Practice. — "All call Paul." Read any selection while 
affecting a gape ; hold the nose with finger and thumb ; make 
a strong effort to get the tone to pass through the open mouth 
aperture. Cultivate consciousness in the soft palate, and feel 
when it is up and when down. Listen for the dull thud in the 
voice, and prevent it, as directed above. 

(3.) Guttural results from lifting the back of the tongue 



68 VOCAL CULTURE AND EXPRESSION. 

against the walls of the pharynx, or of contracting the phar- 
ynx and bringing the pillars of the fauces too near together. 

Practice. — Be quiet, composed, easy in vocal effort ; relax 
the "squeezing" effort of the throat, and grasp by use of the 
abdominal muscles. 

(4.) I'hickness or mouthful quality results from lifting the 
dorsum of the tongue too high. It is sometimes called 
" sucking the tongue." 

Practise the proper use of the tongue as taught in articula- 
tion. 

(5.) Huskiness results from (a) diseases, as cold or chronic 
disorder of the parts ; (&) failure to approximate or make 
tense the vocal cords. 

Practice. — Of course get rid of the disease under some 
skilled advice. Beware of the many nostrums to clear the 
throat. 

Practise the exercises found under " attack." 

The clear, penetrating, yet sweet quality of tone, which we 
call pure tone, is seldom found to perfection ; but of the 
poorest voices, oidinary perseverance will make good one^ in 
this respect. 

'Practise reading in clear, pure tone : — 

" Ye bells in the steeple, ring, ring out your changes, 
How many soever they be, 
And let the brown meadow lark's note as he ranges, 
Come over, come over to me." 

Pitch. — By pitch we mean the place in the musical scale, 
The faults to be guarded against are as follows : — 

(1.) Stilting the voice to the higher range of tones ; intense 
mentality leads to this fault, as does also the effort to made 
one's self heard by a large audience. In o'cher cases it is a 
chronic fault. 

(2.) Another fault is the opposite one 01 keeping the 
voice on a low pitch, ventriloquizing in dull monotony. This 



VOCAL CULTURE. 69 

fault frequently arises from intense subjectiveness ; again it is 
a habit. 

Practice. — Mind and body should be in a free attitude, the 
middle pitch of voice should be found and used as the com- 
mon point about which the voice is allowed to play. If the 
speaker uses the tower half of the vocal range, positive, long 
downward slides will be impossible ; on the other hand, if 
the upper half is used, the command of long upward slides is 
impossible. 

By using the middle pitch, we have a range above and 
below that may be utilized. The whole range of voice is 
necessary to the production of vocal climax, to variety and 
character of expression, now calling for the thunder of the 
lower range, anon for the lightning of the upper. All thun- 
der and no lightning is very monotonous ; all lightning is a 
terrible strain upon both speaker and audience. 

Flexibility of voice is the ability to move from one pitch 
to another either concretely or discretely with ease and 
promptness. 

Variety in pitch and in slide is indispensably necessary to 
effective expression. This depends (a) upon a clear ap- 
preciation of the thought behind the language, distinctly and 
consecutively appreciated ; (b) then upon a skilful use of the 
vocal apparatus, the proper adjustment of vocal cords, posi_ 
tion of the larynx, and form of the pharyngeal and mouth 
cavities. 

Practice. — Sing the scale promptly ; make the third, 
fifth, and eighth intervals, sung and spoken, slide up and 
down in speech on the musical intervals — over one step, 
two steps, etc. ; then swing the voice over the same inter- 
vals, beginning on a low pitch and swing over the higher, 
returning to the lower; beginning on a higher and singing 
to a lower. 

Pronounce the same word on a different pitch ; take several 
words, pronounce each on a different pitch. 



yO VOCAL CULTURE AND EXPRESSION. 

Pronounce Kook-koo, repeat rapidly with prompt attack 
("stroke of the glottis"). The finger placed on the larynx 
outside will reveal the alternate elevation and depression of 
this organ. 

Grace. — By this we mean that smooth and gliding property 
noticeable in pleasant voices, which is the effect of vowel 
quantity. Some sounds that appear simple are really com- 
pounds. Take, for instance, the vowel ft i." Uttered in the 
simple way we find these characteristics : it opens with some 
degree of abruptness, and gradually diminishes on the obscure 
sound of e, ending in a delicate, vanishing point. 

Dr. Rush was the first to note this quality. He gives the 
name of radical to the first part of the element, and van- 
ishing movement to the second, and calls the whole move- 
ment a radical and vanishing tone. This property of voice 
shows its superiority over all other instruments. 

Dr. Barber says, " The full manifestation of the radical and 
vanishing in the management of the slides of long quantity, 
or in other words, the utterance of long syllables in reading 
and speaking, is in the highest degree captivating to the ear, 
and is what gives smoothness and delicacy to the tones of 
the voice." The voice, destitute of this vanishing property, 
sounds coarse, harsh, and heavy. 

This perfection of syllabic quantity with vanishing move- 
ment is really a perfection of pronunciation. But as it so 
manifestly affects the quality of the voice, we have discussed it 
under this head. It is also intimately connected with in- 
flection. 

This property is noticeable on short syllables, though net 
so obvious. The necessity of mastering this property of 
voice is plain. 

Practise the following elements : a (as in fall), a (far), a (ale)> 
I (isle), 6 (pole), oo (pool), e (eel), and the diphthongs ou (our) 
and oy (boy). The sudden opening of these vowels and their 
gradual vanishing is very noticeable if uttered deliberately. 



VOCAL CULTURE. Jl 

Dr. Rush gives the subjoined diagram to furnish a more 
obvious view of the process. 



ABC 

A. The opening fulness; B. The quantity with diminishing volume; 
C. The vanishing point. 

Practise also with the long quantity : orb, aid, all, save, old, 
home, praise, hail, the, isles, how, owls, go. 

Unusual imperfections of voice resulting from congenital 
conformation, such as cleft palate, etc., hardly find appropri- 
ate place in this connection. 

Additional practice : Be careful to observe the faults and 
excellences enumerated, and practise with attentive ear : — 

" There 's a good time coming, boys, 
A good time coming ; 
We may not live to see the day, 
But earth shall glisten in the ray 
Of the good time coming. 
Cannon balls may aid the truth, 
But thought 's a weapon stronger ; 
We '11 win our battle by its aid, — 
Wait a little longer." 

Practise the following, giving especial attention to long 
quantity ; utter smoothly on long monotone : — 

" There stood — an unsold captive - — in the mart — a gray-haired — and 
majestical — old man — chained — to a pillar. It was — almost night — 
the last seller — from his place — had gone — not a sound — was heard 

— but — of a dog — crunching — beneath the stall — a refuse bone — or 

— the dull echo — from the pavement rung — as the faint captive — 
changed — his weary feet." 

Chant the same, 

Practise on any selection, regarding all the properties 
above. 



72 VOCAL CULTURE AND EXPRESSION. 



CHAPTER VI. 

ORTHOEPY. 
"Words are the sounds of the heart" — Chinese Proverb. 

After voice, the next step naturally leads us to consider 
words and their alphabetical elements, out of which discourse 
is made. 

Pronunciation. — The rhetorician will enjoin upon you 
to be careful to have purity of diction ; then the elocutionist 
will tell you to conform to the accepted standards of pronun- 
ciation. No one who aims at perfection will be satisfied with 
a pronunciation because it is the one generally given. Any 
word about which he is in doubt ought to drive the student 
to some accepted standard. The printed standard is final 
authority. It is true the standard is based upon good usage 
and general consent of the educated for long periods of time ; 
but many educated persons are negligent as to pronunciation. 
The student will have to exercise great caution and diligence 
to get the exact pronunciation of his mother tongue. Only 
the other day we heard a Boston doctor of divinity use a 
" microscope " several times, instead of the familiar old in- 
strument, microscope. This was not the only mistake of the 
kind, nor is this doctor of divinity alone. Many of the most 
familiar words are often mispronounced by the best educated. 
"God" is frequently pronounced "Gaud"; consequently there 
is but little difference between godliness and gaudiness. The 
letter " r " is a very much neglected letter, among Americans 
especially. Mr. Spurgeon, in his address to students, said : 
" Abhor the practice of some men who will not bring put the 
letter ' r.' Such a habit is wewy wuinous and widiculous, wewy 



VOCAL CULTURE. 73 

wetched and weprehensible." Such men make "Laud" out of 
" Lord," " has " out of " horse," etc., if they do no worse. In 
the Southern States the final "r" sound is converted into a 
vowel sound, as in " moah " for "more," " doah " for "door." 
This letter, so frequently slighted, at other times is made to do 
service where it is wretchedly out of place, as when the "r" 
sound is added to a final syllable ending in a vowel. This 
fault is common to New York and the New England States. 
Here "law" frequently becomes "lawr"; "formula," "formu- 
lar," etc. 

A more common barbarism of New England is the change 
of long " u," the richest vowel of the English language, to 
"65," as in "institoot" for "institute," "noose" for "news," 
" dooty " for " duty." A is apt to be given as a (aunt) in the 
Middle and Southern States, and a (aunt) in New England. 
In New York or New England 6 becomes u — " stun " for 
"stone," etc. Localisms, learned in boyhood, cling to the 
most scholarly, unless special pains be taken to correct them. 
I have heard a college president in New England speaking of 
"idears," when he meant "ideas." 

Proper Names. — One may not be expected to know 
the pronunciation of every modern name ; but mispronuncia- 
tion of historic names is an indication of ignorance or ex- 
treme carelessness. I have heard " Goethe " pronounced 
"Go-eth," "^Eschines" pronounced "^Es-chl'-nes," and by a 
minister, " Onesiphorus " transmuted into " O-nes-i-pho'-rus." 

Dean Alford (" Queen's English ") says : " I cannot abstain 
from saying a few. w r ords on the mispronunciation of Scripture 
names by our clergy. This, let me remind them, is inexcusa- 
ble." He records the minister of a fashionable London 
church introducing " Epen-e-tus " and " Pa-tro' bus " to the 
audience ; and another clergyman reading, " Tro-phl'-mus 
have I left at Mil'-e-tum sick." 

Syllabication. — A syllable is the shortest appreciable por- 
tion of pronunciation, and strikes the ear as a single impulse. 



74 VOCAL CULTURE AND EXPRESSION. 

It, however, consists of one or more elementary sounds. " Ah " 
consists of but one element, while " strands " consists of seven. 
The simple syllable "m-a-n " has three elements. The organs 
of the voice must be placed in position for each of them, and 
the rapidity with which this is done prevents any appreciable 
silence between the respective elements, and so the three 
come to the ear as one sound. 

Languages differ as to how many consonants shall combine 
with the vowel element to form a syllable. The Hawaiian 
admits of only the simplest kind of combination, — a single 
preceding consonant. The English stands nearly at the other 
end of the scale, allowing as many as three preceding and four 
succeeding consonants, aggregating sometimes seven articu- 
lates, as in " s-p-1-i-n-t-st." The method of syllabication, in 
more refined languages at least, seems to be one cf economy, 
progressing from the less open to the more open position 
cf the mouth aperture, as "s-t-a-y," or the reverse, "a-s-k." 
These two ways maybe combined, as in " s-t-r-a-n-d." We 
cannot make zigzags in syllables. T-r-s-n-d-a is an impossi- 
bility as one syllable, though containing only the same num- 
ber of elements as "strand." 

Faults or excellencies of pronunciation depend upon faulty 
or excellent action of the organs in elementary enunciation. 
That the organs must assume six or eight different and defi- 
nite positions in the pronunciation of words of average length, 
indicates how extremely lively these organs must be, else they 
will trip and stumble over each other, preventing distinctness 
and good vowel quality. But facts quite wonderful are possi- 
ble in pronunciation. Mr. Moody, the revivalist, is said to 
have spoken two hundred and twenty words in a minute. 

Syllabication also includes accent. The syllable to be 
accented must also be determined by the acknowledged 
standards. 

Alphabetic. — The simplest division of elementary sounds 
is into vowels and consonants, based upon organic action, as 
follows : — 



VOCAL CULTURE. 



75 



Vowels result from definite fixed position of the organs of 
speech ; they are non-obstructive and syllabic. That is, they 
do not obstruct the breath or voice, and are the norm of 
syllables. 

Consonants result from definite fixed positions of the 
organs of speech. They are obstructive and non-syllabic. 
According to Prof. Bell, there are seventeen vowel and twenty- 
six consonant elements in the English language. 

Vowel Analysis. — Vowels classified so as to indicate 
the part of the tongue most actively concerned in their 
moulding: — 



Back. 



Top. 



Front. 



oo as 


in pool. 


a as in ask. 


ee as in feel. 


u " 


" pull. 


u " " urn. 


1 " " ill. 


li " 


" up. 




a " " ale. 


5 " 


" pole. 




e " " met. 


a. " 


" far. 




a " " at. 


I " 


" isle. 






au " 


" Paul. 






o " 


" on. 






ow " 


" owl. 






oi " 


" oil. 







Proceeding from the top of the column down, you pass 
successively from the more elevated to the less elevated 
position of the tongue. The same vowel sound is not uni- 
formly represented by the same character ; " oo " as in pool 
is represented by u (ride), o (do), etc., etc. 

The sound of each of the above vowels should be familiar 
to the studeat ; he should learn to distinguish them early by 
the ear, and give them promptly in pronunciation by whatever 
character represented. The organs in moulding these vowels 
must be definitely fixed, as the character of the vowel depends 
upon the shape of the mouth cavity. An approximation will 
only give an approximate vowel. The student should not 
let the character confuse him as to the sound he is to give ; 
ei (veil) has the same sound as a (ale). 

Imperfect Vowel Moulding. — Some vowels are more 
easily moulded than others ; consequently, in careless and 



76 VOCAL CULTURE AND EXPRESSION. 

lazy pronunciation, the organs are adjusted to the easiest 
position. Habitual faulty pronunciation of certain vowels, 
sometimes interferes with the proper adjustment for othei 
vowels. Slovenly speakers give piitatuh, for potato ; stun, for 
stone; induvisubility, for indivisibility; cluck, for clock, etc. 

i. The most common fault and the one to be guarded 
against, is the tendency to make long voivels short. The 
shortening of vowel quantity in pronunciation gives the 
disagreeable quality of voice previously considered. 

2. As unaccented vowels are unmarked in the dictiona- 
ries, it is sometimes difficult to give the quantity of the 
obscure vowels. Prof. Monroe gave the following rules to 
aid in this case : — 

i. "A, i, y, ending an unaccented syllable is generally 
short obscure, as in the words, abound, capable, d/rect, 
p^-rites. 

Exception. — These vowels are long when they directly pre- 
cede an accented vowel, as in a-e-rial, d/-ameter, Ivy-e'na. 

2. E, o, or u, ending an unaccented syllable, is generally 
long obscure, as in ^-vent, molest, c^-taneous. 

3. In cases where the preceding rules will not apply, place 
the accent on the doubtful syllable to determine its sound; 
thus change lag'-gard to laggard', and it will readily be per- 
ceived that the sound in the last syllable is that of a. 

The article a has always the sound of a (at), obscure, 
approaching short vowel ii (up). 

The article the is pronounced thi before a vowel, and thu 
(vowel very obscure) before a consonant. 

Practice. — 1. Exercise care and energy in conversational 
pronunciation. 

2. a, 00, ee, may be regarded as key vowels as to the 
position of the tongue, lips, and vocal cords. 

In a* the lower jaw drops to its widest extent, the upper lip 
is lifted and arched, showing the upper front teeth, the 
aperture suggesting an equal-sided triangle, whose base is 



VOCAL CULTURE. JJ 

the lower lip, tongue flat and hollow. This position should 
be mastered. 

In e the mouth should be extended as far as possible side- 
wise, showing the tips of the teeth. 

In " oo " contract and round the lips. 

i. Practise uttering these vowels in rapid succession, con- 
tinuously, e-ah-oo ; ah-e-oo ; oo-ah-e, etc. 

2. Arrange a, e, i, o, u in every conceivable order, and 
utter them as above, and then deliberately. 

3. To liberate the jaw, utter rapidly and continuously, 
fah, lah, etc. 

Consonants. — Consonants, unlike vowels, obstruct the 
vocal passage by the tongue articulating with the upper teeth, 
the palate, or by the articulation of the lips, and lip and 
teeth. Some are given with only breath, others with voice. 
Care should be taken to permit only the nasals to pass 
through the nasal cavities. 

With Breath only. With Voice. Nasals. 

P— - B — M — 

Wh — (why) W — N — 

F- V- Ng-(sing) 

Th — (thin) Dh — (this) 

S — Z — (zone) 

T— D — 

Sh— (shed) R— (roll) 

H— Zh— (azure) 

K— Y — 

Rh- G _ 

Yh — R— (oar) 

L — 
Articulation. — The value of distinct articulation is of 

prime importance ; for it enables the speaker to make his 
words, at least, understood. This excellence hides a multi- 
tude of oratorical sins. 

Mr. A. M. Bell heard Rev. Mr. Spurgeon address an 
assembly of twenty-five thousand people in Agricultural Hall, 
London. The speaker was easily heard and understood by 



78 VOCAL CULTURE AND EXPRESSION. 

all, and this with only usual exertion. Mr. Bell attributed 
this success to the speaker's accurate and vigorous enuncia- 
tion. In articulation each word should be cleanly carved 
and plainly stamped, as the gold piece from the coiner. 

Some of the faults of articulation are as follows : Thickness, 
using the middle instead of top of tongue. Sometimes this 
is a congenital defect, and the surgeon's knife must be sought 
to "snip the framum." 

Burring, caused by approximating the back of the tongue 
to the walls of the pharynx. 

Lisping, giving " th" for the " s " sound. To correct, place 
tip of the tongue about three quarters of an inch back of the 
upper teeth in uttering "s." 

Stuttering and stammering are most serious impediments. 
The sufferer should seek skilled advice. One or two help- 
ful points are enumerated : first establish deep and regular 
breathing during vocal effort, hold the head firm, read and 
speak lazily. 

The common faults that beset the greatest number of 
speakers are the following : — 

Drawling, a habit of making vocal effort while waiting for 
another thought or word. This class of speakers in extreme 
cases, hang-ugh on-ugh the-ugh word. 

Lack of Prompt and Definite Action of the Or- 
gans. — Dental quality, resulting from keeping the teeth too 
firmly closed. This is a very common fault and one that must 
be constantly guarded against, especially as it is apt to be ac- 
companied by a rigid condition of the muscles of the throat. 
Many speakers do not show the least space between the 
teeth in uttering the less open vowels. In "e," the closest 
vowel, there should be space enough between the teeth to 
admit of a thick paper-cutter. 

Sluggish, Unruly Tongue. — Every voice teacher has 
experienced the statement of the Scripture that " the tongue 
is an unruly member." 



VOCAL CULTURE. 79 

To secure good vowel moulding and articulation, the student 
should direct his efforts mainly to the following points : — 
i . To bring the tone forward as treated of before. 

2. Free and generous opening of the lips and separation of 
teeth. 

3. Perfect control of the tongue, especially the ability to keep 
the tongue flat in the mouth at will. The vowel "ah," may 
be selected as a practice vowel. While uttering it the tongue 
should be troughed, the tip touching the lower teeth. This 
gives an unobstructed passage for vocal emission. The top 
of the tongue has a constant tendency to arch up, obstructing 
the passage and producing a squeezed quality of voice. 

1 . Practice bfore the mirror. 

(a.) Open the mouth, depress the tongue, lift the veil of 
the palate, till the uvula quite disappears. The gaping effort 
will usually effect this. 

(b.) Hold the mouth open, thrust the tongue far out, sud- 
denly draw it in as far as possible. 

(c.) Holding the mouth open, with tip of the tongue reach 
back to the soft palate as far as possible. 

2. Practice for articulation. As the defects of articulation 
are elementary, correction should be applied to the elements. 

Learn the position for the consonants, then vigorously ar- 
ate them. 

3. Practice for lip mobility. Gently closing the lips with 
teeth slightly separated, distend the mouth laterally as in 
smiling. Now without separating the lips, suddenly shoot 
them out to the " 66 " position. Immovable lips and flat 
mouth are very common faults, and should receive the special 
care of the student. 

4. Practise repeating continuously do do, etc., to to, etc. ; 
this exercise liberates the tongue, also lo and fa, la, si, do. 

5. Practise speaking with exaggerated movement of the 
tongue and lips, as though speaking to deaf mutes. 

6. Practise difficult combinations : ip, it, ik, if, ith, iss, ish, 



80 VOCAL CULTURE AND EXPRESSION. 

im, in, ing, it, id, ig, in, ith, iz, izh, ith, iss, ith, ish, iss, ith, 
iss, ish, ish, iss, ish, ith, ith, iss, ith, ith, ish, ith, iss, ish, iss, ish, 
ith, izh, il, in, il, ing, in, ill, in, ing, ing, il, ing, in, ill, in, ing, 
il, ing, in, in, il, ing, in, il, ing, in, ing, il, ing, in, il, ib, it, id, 
im, in, ir, ir, ib, ir, ir, pa, ta, fa, tha, sha, ma, na, ga, ha, ka, 
po, to, fo, tho, sho, mo, no, go, ho, ko, ra, etc. 

Pronounce the following with particular reference to the 
final element, but be careful not to prolong the final sound 
unnaturally : pip, tip, pip, pit, tit, pik, kik, tik, thith, tath, 
shooth, sus, shis, shas, shish, bib, gab, did, gid, gog, dog, bog, 
pi'f, tath, bit, mir, pop, rim, thid, lil, rol, ral, rin, lin, pan, ram, 
lim, sim, rim, ing, ling, ming. 

Table of Consonant Sounds. — ProbW, trou-b/ed, 
troub/'d'st, rob-b'st, candle, hand/'d, lond/est, blac-&ens, think' st, 
iall'sf, elves, whelw, whelmed, help'st, filttid, heaths, entombed, 
xawged, thinks, flinch^//, songs, arcs, hookV, sna-r/W/, hoopV/, 
fear'j/, hurt\r/, search' j/, healths, wreathed, rhythm, battles, set- 
tlW, liv'j/, muzzle, imprison'd, imprison'd'st. 

Repeat the following quickly and with firm accentuation : 
act, acts, beef-broth, chaise, cloud-capt, eighths, faith, fifths, 
judged, knitting, literally, literary, literarily, linen, mimic, 
needle, popped, plural, quacked, quiet, railroad, raillery, 
rennet, saith, sash, sixths, soothe, Scotch, sloth, statistics, 
twelfths, vivify, vivication, wife, whiff, whip. Farewell in wel- 
fare. Fine white wine vinegar with veal. May we vie. Bring 
a bit of buttered bran bread. Some pranks Franks play in 
the tank. A bad big dog. Keep the tippet ticket. Geese 
cackle, cattle low, crows caw, cocks crow. A knapsack strap. 
Take tape and tie the cape. Come and cut the tongue, cook. 
Fanny flattered foppish Fred. Giddy Kitty's tawdry gewgaws. 
Kate's ten cents. Six thick thistle sticks. Let reason rule 
your life. A lucent rubicund rotary luminary. Don't run 
along the wrong labyrinth. Lucy likes light literature. 



VOCAL CULTURE. 8l 

I. 'T was a wild, mad kind of a night, as black as the bottomless pit, 
The wind was howling away like a Bedlamite in a fit, 
Tearing the ash boughs off, and mowing the poplars down, 
In the meadows beyond the old flour-mill where you turn to go off to 
the town. 

2. Nothing could stop old Lightning Bess but the broad breast of the 
sea. 

3. Lovely art thou, O Peace, and lovely are thy children, and lovely 
are thy footsteps in the green valleys. 

4. To an American visiting Europe, the long voyage he has to make 
is an excellent preparative. From the moment you lose sight of the 
land you have left, all is vacancy, until you step on the opposite shore 
and are launched at once into the novelties and bustle of another world. 



VOCAL EXPRESSION. 



CHAPTER VII. 

LANGUAGE. 

Language in its broadest function reveals not only that 
which man designs to express, but infinitely more. It 
expresses not only what the man creates in his mind, but 
really what he is also. 

The orator's office, perhaps, is to express only what he 
thinks and feels ; but as what a man does is inseparable from 
what he is, it may be profitable to look briefly at language in 
the broadest light. But first, the intentional language of the 
orator does not consist merely of the literal or spoken form. 
"It was not what he said, but it was the way he said it," 
is a comment frequently heard upon another's utterance. 
The most scathing invective may be couched in language of 
complimentary form. Irony gets its meaning and sting from 
the tone in which it is spoken, while the words pretend to 
praise. 

Delsarte classified these different agents and methods of 
expression as " nine languages." 

First, the language of forms. The nature and habits of the 
snake or eagle may be determined by its form. 

Man's place in the order of beings is also indicated by the 
form of his body. The hand especially indicates his superi- 
ority. The form is more or less modified by the inner life. 

Second, Attitudes. All emotions strong enough to pro- 
nounce themselves, find expression in appropriate attitude, or 
significant change of form and position in relation to others. 



VOCAL EXPRESSION. 83 

Third, Automatic movements. These are unconscious es- 
capes of character, unpurposed movements, as trembling, 
nodding, biting of the lips, etc. 

Fourth, Gesture. This is nature's language, a valuable 
handmaid to articulate speech. 

Fifth, Facial expression. " The eye is the window of the 
soul." I think it is equally as true, and fully as trite, that the 
face is the mirror of the soul. The animated face is an open 
book of the soul's contents. 

Sixth, Inarticulate noises. " All organic or emotional states 
seeking uncontrolled expression, reveal themselves in crude 
noises," as the whistle, hiss, cough, sob, groan, etc. 

Seventh, Inflected tones. " The quality, pitch, cadence of 
voice, reveal the range of emotion in kind and degree." The 
"yell of rage," the "wail of sorrow," the "monotone of 
sublimity," etc., are found under this head. 

Eighth, Articulate language. Articulate language is the 
medium of the intellect. 

Ninth, Deeds. This is a very solid manifestation of self. 
So the proverb comes that " actions speak louder than 
words." 

We will study at greater length the second, fourth, fifth, 
sixth, seventh, and eighth of these languages. 

Articulate and Inflected Language. — Words reveal 
the intellectual state. So we have the incisive and compact 
utterance of the clear thinker, in contrast to the intellectual 
status of the wordy bankrupt in thought. 

Voice reveals the sensitive state. None fail to appreciate 
the " clear, honest voice of health and refinement, the minc- 
ing fop, the muddy vocality of vice." 

Inflections reveal the moral state. The positive inflection 
of the man of conviction, the circumflex of a double dealer, 
the mechanical and nasal whine of the hypocrite, are inter- 
preted by all, if all are not able to analyze the mechanics of 
the language used. 



84 VOCAL CULTURE AND EXPRESSION. 

Articulate Language. — The first effort of every speaker 
should be to make himself understood. 

Emphasis. — The intelligibility of articulate language de- 
pends upon emphasis. Words are made emphatic by giving 
them prominence, compelling them to stand out in the sen- 
tence. This is accomplished by pausing before or after a 
word, by the quality of the voice used, but most usually by an 
increased force ("stress") of voice on the accented syllable 
on a higher pitch. The word to be emphasized is the one that 
conveys the meaning intended. Any sentence may convey as 
many meanings or shades of meaning as it has words. Do 
you study elocution ? Really, I do not. Do you study elocu- 
tion ? No, but my brother does. Do you study elocution ? 
No, I ignore it as beneath my dignity. Do you study elocu- 
tion ? No, I prefer theology. 

The author must have clearly in his mind what he does 
mean, and then command the emphasis to express it. Re- 
porters are not always to blame for misunderstanding the 
speaker ; speakers and readers are frequently slovenly in 
using emphasis. In deliberative •assemblies, I have heard 
speakers interrupted, and questioned as to their meaning. 
With the same sentence, but correctly emphasized, the 
speaker re-states himself, and the audience is no longer in 
doubt. 

Usually the word that expresses the most, when separated 
from the rest of the sentence, is the one that reveals the 
thought. 

"From the workshop of the Golden Key, there issued 
forth a tinkling sound, so merry and good-humored, that it 
suggested the idea of some one working blithely, and made 
quite pleasant music" 

In reading this sentence, the majority of persons will 
emphasize " sound," but tinkling expresses not only sound, 
but tells the character of the sound, and should therefore be 
emphasized. "Tinkling," "blithely," and "music," given 



VOCAL EXPRESSION. 85 

with proper inflection and action, will express more than any 
other words of the sentence. 

New idea. In a succession of ideas, the new one is to be 
emphasized according to the principle above. 

" ' Tink, tink ! ' clear as a silver bell, and audible at every 
pause of the street's harsher noises, as though it said, ' I 
don't care ! ' " To emphasize " noises," would be to empha- 
size the old idea included in " tinkling." The idea is to con- 
trast the clear bell sound with the harsh sounds of the street. 

Antithesis. Antithetic emphasis is placed really according 
to the principle of the new idea. 

Faults. — 1. Emphasizing too many words. Where all 
are generals, there are no privates. Emphasizing every word 
is equal to emphasizing none. 

2. Emphasizing words at regular intervals without regard 
to sense. 

3. Placing the emphasis on unaccented syllables. 

4. Emphasizing small or unimportant words. 

5. Emphasizing words at random, without clearly discern- 
ing the thought. 

Practice. — i. Get command over the power to place the 
emphasis on any word at will. 

2. Analyze what you are to read, for the most important 
word ; (a) by separating the words of the sentence, (b) by 
placing the emphasis on different words in succession. 

3. Clearly think your thought, then utter the words that 
convey your meaning with due emphasis. 

The Language of Inflected Tones. — While words re- 
veal thought, inflection shows how that thought affects the 
speaker. It is the language of emotion. A perfect man 
would have no difficulty in perfectly expressing himself. Chil- 
dren are generally less trammeled than men, to express them- 
selves thoroughly and accurately through the inflections. 

We understand inflection to be the slide of the voice from 
one pitch to another. 



86 VOCAL CULTURE AND EXPRESSION. 

"Pitch is the place of the sound in the musical scale." 

Concrete pitch is that movement of sound from a lower to a 
higher, or from a higher to a lower pitch, without any break ; 
it is accomplished by one impulse of sound. 

Discrete pitch is that of two or more sounds separated from 
each other. If the finger is slid down the string of the violin 
while the bow is drawn across, we have a sound continuing 
from one pitch to another, without any break whatever ; this 
is a concrete pitch, for the pitches grow together. Now if the 
performer change his finger to give a distinct pitch with an 
interval between, we have a discrete pitch, for one pitch is dis- 
tinguished 'from another. 

In slides we use concrete pitch. "High," "low," and 
"middle " pitch refer to the part of the vocal scale. 

In a succession of two tones, if the second begins a tone 
above the beginning of the first, it is called a discrete rising 
second ; if it falls below, it is called a discrete falling second. 

According to the interval made, we have a discrete rising 
second, third, fifth, octave, etc., if the voice ascends in the 
scale ; or falling second, third, etc., etc., if it falls in the scale. 
The voice may rise or fall two or more tones, making discrete 
intervals of only a tone, thus touching every tone in ascend- 
ing or descending. A succession of tones on the same pitch 
is a monotone. A phrase of melody is an alternating set of 
rising or falling tones. 

Rising Slides.* — The semitone. Let a plaintive or 
mournful expression be given to the following sentence, and 
it will exhibit the rising semitone on the " I," and the falling 
semitone on "boy" : " I will be a good boy," answering the 
question, "Who will be a good boy? " 

Rising slide of a second. Let the following sentence be de- 
liberately and clearly uttered, and the " I " will exhibit the 



* For the examples on the slides of the voice, the author is indebted to 
Dr. Barber's '' Grammar of Elocution." 



VOCAL EXPRESSION. 87 

rising slide of a second : " As soon as I arrived, he conducted 
me into the house." It is the suspensive slide. 

Rising slide of a third. Let the following question be 
asked in a natural way, expecting the answer "Yes " or "No " : 
" Did he say it was I that did it ? " This will illustrate the 
rising slide of a third. 

Rising slide of a fifth. Let the same question be asked 
with emphasis and emotion : " Did you say it was I ? " This 
exhibits the intense slide of the fifth. 

Rising slide of an octave. Let the emphasis be still stronger 
and the question more piercing, expressive of excessive sur- 
prise, and it will exhibit the more intense rising slide of the 
octave : " Did you say it was I" I Children and women often 
ask questions with this intense and piercing slide. 

Falling Slides. — Falling slide of a second. Let the fol- 
lowing sentence be uttered in a natural, easy way, without 
emphasis on the " I," supposing Mr. I and the speaker to be 
on equal terms : " Good evening, Mr. I." 

Falling slide of a third. Let the same sentence be uttered, 
putting " I " in antithesis to you : " Good evening, Mr. 7." 

Falling slide of a fifth. Let the same be uttered with 
strong emphasis on " I," to express a considerable degree of 
positiveness, and an intense downward slide of a fifth will be 
exhibited : " He said it was J" (not you). 

Falling slide of an octave. Now let the highest degree of 
dictatorial positiveness and energy be given to the " I," and 
it may reach the downward octave : " He said it was /." 

Circumflex Slides. — The voice may not only ascend, but 
also descend, upon the same syllable. This movement of the 
voice upon a syllable is called a circumflex. 

" If the rise and fall of the voice on a syllable are through 
the same interval, it is called an equal wave ; if it is not the 
same, it is an unequal wave." If the radical or first part rises, 
it is called a falling circumflex ; if it falls, a rising circumflex ; 
if it rises and falls and rises again, it is a rising double cir- 



88 VOCAL CULTURE AND EXPRESSION. 

cumflex ; if it falls and rises and falls again, it is a falling 
double circumflex. 

The circumflex is a second, third, fifth, or octave, according 
to the interval it passes through. 

Examples illustrative of the circufnfltX slides. " Hail ! holy 
Light." If the word " hail " is uttered with extended quan- 
tity, with a perceptible downward ending, and with that em- 
phasis only which arises from its prolongation, it will show 
the falling circumflex of a second. 

" High on a throne of royal state." If this sentence is 
uttered with long quantity, it will show the rising circumflex 
of the second on the syllables "high," "throne," "roy." 

"'I said he was my friend.' If this sentence be deliber- 
ately uttered with very long quantity upon the 'my,' or an 
exclusive emphasis, implying that the person spoken of was 
not your friend," that word will show the falling circumflex of 
the third. If the answer " Your friend " is made interrogator)', 
and the word u your " is uttered with very long quantity, with 
a slight degree of surprise, it will show the rising circumflex 
of the third. " If the sentence is reiterated, ' I said he was 
my friend,' with a strong positive emphasis on 'my,' together 
with a very long quantity," the falling circumflex of the fifth 
will be heard. 

By increasing the emphasis of surprise, and making the 
interrogation more piercing, together with extended quantity 
upon the word " your " in the sentence " Your friend," accom- 
panied with the former example, the rising circumflex of the 
fifth is heard. 

"'I said he was my friend/ If the word c my 3 is uttered 
with a strongly taunting, and at the same time positive expres- 
sion, that word will show rising unequal circumflex. If the 
word ' your ' in the sentence ' Your friend,' is colored strongly 
with scorn and interrogation, it may be made to show the fall- 
ing unequal wave." 

If suspensive quantity with a plaintive expression is put 



VOCAL EXPRESSION. 89 

upon the words "poor" and "old" in the following sentence, 
they will show the falling circumflex of the semitone. " Pity 
the sorrows of a poor old man." The word "man " may be 
made to display the rising circumflex of the semitone, by 
making it plaintive, with long quantity, and causing the voice 
to fall upon the second part of the wave. 

Principles of Inflection. — I. The rising slide is pro- 
spective- 

While the emotions are going on and out to their goal, t]ae 
rising inflection is used. 

II. Rising tones appeal : — 

1. To bespeak attention to something that follows, as-com- 
pleting a statement. 

2. For solution of doubt. 

3. For the expression of the hearer's will, as in response 
to a proposition. 

4. To question the possibilities of an assertion, as in sur- 
prise. 

III. The falling slide is retrospective. 

When the emotions have reached their goal they rest ; the 
falling slide is used. 

Falling tones assert : — 

1. To express completion of statement. 

2. To express conviction. 

3. To express the speaker's will, as in command. 

4. To express impossibility of denial. Rising tones are 
deferential. Falling tones are peremptory. 

IV. The circumflexes are compound in their meaning, par- 
taking of the character of the rising and falling or of the fall- 
ing and rising tone ; these, then, are querulous-assertive or 
assertive-querulous . 

Circumflexes partaking of the nature both of the rising and 
falling slide are used, — 

1. When the emotions are unsettled, as in mental per- 
plexity. 



90 VOCAL CULTURE AND EXPRESSION. 

2. In double meanings, as in sarcasm, scorn, etc. 

3. In conscious insincerity, as when a man of trade reo- 
ommends for purchase some article with concealed defect. 
His conscience and will opposing each other, puts the circum- 
flex in the voice. 

4. In wheedling and flattery ; there is insincerity, too, in 
this. 

5. In compliment, as when you wish to praise a boy for 
some not very important but commendable deed; or when 
you wish to make people feel comfortable. 

V. Monotone. Monotone is reflective. It expresses the 
moral states ; it suggests grandeur, awfulness, sublimity ; it 
is the tone man should use in addressing the Deity. 

VI. Semitone. Semitone is used in grief, sorrow, etc. 

Faults. — 1. Habitual rising slides. These keep the audi- 
ence in continual suspense ; they find no rest. We have 
heard ministers who closed positively constructed sentences 
with the upward slide, in the majority of cases. 

2. Habitual downward slides. These are tiresome ; for the 
listening mind instinctively rests at the downward slide, when 
lo ! it must up and on, for the thought is not completed. Such 
delivery is humdrum and tiresome in the extreme. 

3. Habitual circumflex. This inflection lacks force and 
dignity. 

4. The recurring cadence given in regular succession, pro- 
ducing what is called "sing-song." 

5. Placing the inflection on the unaccented syllable. 

6. Beginning the rising inflection too high, the falling, 
too low. 

Practice. — 1. Use the exercises as given under "Flexi- 
bility," in Chapter V. 

2. Think the thought, let the emotion grow out of it, but 
feel genuinely the truth of what you have to read or speak. 

3. Train the ear to detect the various slides. 

4. Be able to give the slides at will. 



VOCAL EXPRESSION. 91 

5. Guard against the faults enumerated above. 

6. Practise the rising and then the falling slides of the 
second, third, fifth, and octave upon the following elements, 
taking care to educate the ear to distinguish the effect : — 



7. Make the circumflexes on these. 

8. Sing these intervals. 

9. Try to express the emotion of the piece, using only the 
vowels of the accented syllables, as : — 

a pa a go eii 

" That you have wronged me doth appear in this." 



The pitch here constantly becomes higher. 



Falling Inflection : ■ — 

1. To arms ! To arms ! Ye brave ! 
The avenging sword unsheathe ! 
March on, march 6n, all hearts resolved 
On victory or death. 

2. Hence ! home, you idle creatures, get you home ! 

You blocks, you stones, you worse than senseless things, 

Begone ! 

Run to your houses, fall upon your knees, 

Pray to the gods to intermit the plague, 

That needs must light on this ingratitude. 

3 Come to the house of prayer, 
O thou afflicted, come ! 
The God of peace shall meet thee there, 
Pie makes that house his home. 



92 VOCAL CULTURE AND EXPRESSION, 

Rising Inflection, i. Cicero's accusation of Verres : — 

Is it come to this ? Shall an inferior magistrate, a governor, who holds 
his whole power of the Roman people, in a Roman province, within sight 
of Italy, bind, scourge, torture with fire and red-hot plates of iron, and at 
last put to the infamous death of the cross, a Roman citizen? 

2. Must I budge, must I observe you? 

Must I stand and crouch under your testy humor ? 

Rising and Railing : — 

I. Tread softly, bow the head, 
In reverent silence, bow; 
No passing bell doth toll, 
Yet an immortal soul 
Is passing now. 

2. Stand ! The ground 's your own, my braves ! 
Will you give it up to slaves ? 
Do you look for greener graves ? 
Hope you mercy still ? 

3. Can honor set a leg? No! Or an arm? No! Or take away the 
grief of a wound? No! Honor hath no skill in surgery then? No! 
What is honor ? A word. What is that word, honor ? Air. Who hath 
it ? He that died on Wednesday. Doth he feel it ? No! Doth he hear 
it? N6 ! Is it insensible, then? Yes, to the dead. But will it not live 
with the living ? No ! Why ? Detraction will not suffer it. 



Minor Rising Inflection : — 

1. Oh ! pardon me, thou bleeding piece of earth, 
That I am meek and gentle with these butchers. 

2. Give me three grains of corn, mother, 
Only three grains of corn. 



Minor Railing Inflectio?i : — 

1. O my son Absalom! my son, my son Absalom! would God I had 
died for thee, O Absalom, my son, my son ! 

2. OI have lost you all, 

Parents, and home, and friends. 



VOCAL EXPRESSION. 93 



Circumflex Inflections : — 

■I. What, sir! feed a child's body, and let his soul go hungry! pamper 
his limbs, and starve his faculties ? 

2. What should I say to you ? Should I not say, 
Hath a dog money ? Is it possible 
A cur can lend three thousand ducats ? 

3. There was in our town, a certain Tom-ne'er-do-well, an honest fellow, 
who was brought to ruin by readily crediting that "care will kill a cat." 
Poor fellow ! he never considered that he was not a cat ; and accordingly, 
he made it a point not to care for anything. He did not care for his 
father's displeasure, and he was disinherited. He did not care for money, 
and he was always distressed. And lastly, he did not care for himself, 
and he died in the workhouse. 



Monotone : — 

1. Holy, holy, holy, Lord God of Sabbaoth. 

2. And I heard a voice saying unto me, write, etc. 



94 VOCAL CULTURE AND EXPRESSION. 



CHAPTER VIII. 

MELODY OF DISCOURSE. 

Narration, negation, affirmation, every passion and emo- 
tion, has its own peculiar melody. Without understanding the 
words spoken, we can tell whether the untrammeled person 
speaks in anger or complacency, whether in joy or grief, by 
the melody of his speech. 

The stronger and more pronounced emotions usually ex- 
press themselves naturally in their own melody ; but all the 
emotions are not controlling. Many speakers utter the most 
benevolent emotions in the most discordant fashion ; ethers, 
again, express the language of anger in the tamest manner. 

Speech is characterized by variety in pitch (radical pitch 
and inflection), time, force, movement, accent, quantity, stress. 

Discrete pitch. Discrete pitch, previously discussed under 
inflection, is made by a different impulse of the voice for the 
different pitches. It makes the intervals distinct, and gives 
variety to the utterance. 

Melody arising from difference in discrete pitch. Such is the 
demand of the ear for variety, that if three syllables be uttered 
upon the same pitch the effect is monotonous. 

Simple melody. In plain, unemotional narrative the dis- 
crete pitch of the discourse seldom moves from word to word 
by more than a tone. The slides also usually make intervals 
of only a tone. Although the proximate syllables may differ 
by only a tone, yet this melody admits of a great variety of 
combinations ; for the last syllable of a sentence might pos- 
sibly be a whole octave above or below the starting-point, hav- 
ing made a variety of melodious phrases in the mean time. 



VOCAL EXPRESSION. 95 

No prescribed order of these intervals can be written out. 
They must depend upon the mental and emotional attitude of 
the reader or speaker. If the mind is not constrained, and is 
keenly alive, there will be variety enough to prevent dulness. 
The extemporaneous speaker will usually be more free from 
this fault of sameness. Readers and speakers from manu- 
script will have to be more watchful. Care must be taken by 
all, to avoid falling into the rut of a single emotion. 

Strong emotion, violent passion, and intense mentality ex- 
press themselves by wider intervals. 

Pitch is called high, medium, and low, according to the 
range of pitch used. 

i. High pitch suitably expresses joyousness, etc. 

2. Medium pitch is used in unemotional discourse. 

3. Low pitch is employed in seriousness, etc. 
Cadence, Cadence is the discrete fall of the voice in pitch, 

in closing a sentence not interrogatory. Variety, to satisfy 
the ear and to complete the sense, depends measurably upon 
the manner of closing a sentence, as well as upon the variety 
of pitch during the progress of the utterance. 

Cadence properly includes two other syllables, preparatory 
to the last one, and is necessary to distinctly separate the dif- 
ferent ideas of discourse. In simple thought, not interrogative, 
emphatical, or emotional, the following cadences are used : the 
cadence of three syllables separates ideas most, the cadence 
of two less (this is the best ending for plain thought), and 
that of a single one, the least. The voice must slide clown a 
tone on the final syllable of a cadence, but upon the others it 
may slide either up or down, and with longer intervals. 

Faults. — Faults of pitch. Speaking on too high or too 
low a pitch. This fault was discussed under " Inflection." 

In simple melody the most common fault is sameness, result- 
ing from unvaried discrete pitch. Sometimes many words are 
spoken on the same pitch. This is the real "monotone," 
Akin to it is the habit of employing the same two or three 



96 VOCAL CULTURE AND EXPRESSION. 

intervals over . and over again, producing another kind of 
"monotone," so called. 

Improper use of semitone. Unless called for by strong 
expression of mournful feeling, the use of the semitone gives 
an undignified, hypocritical whine. This fault is most fre- 
quently found in the pulpit. " I pray you avoid it." 

In pausal melody. — Want of cadence. The repose of 
the cadence is grateful to the ear. Some speakers never 
make a cadence, and the listener, kept in anticipation all the 
time, must look up to find out when the speaker is through, as 
the voice gives no indication. 

Feeble e?idi?ig, resulting from an imperfect cadence, and 
expending all the force before the close. Be careful not to 
let the voice get so low in pitch as to prevent a strong ending 
on the last words. 

False cadence, resulting from the voice falling discretely on 
the last syllable more than one tone. 

A recurring pausal melody produces another kind of monot- 
ony, called " sing-song." The ear anticipates this melody, and 
expects it at certain intervals. One must be careful to avoid 
this fault in reading metrical composition ; for the recurrence 
of the measure, or sound in rhyme, especially invites this fault. 
Again, the style of some speakers in the construction of 
sentences invites recurring melody. 

The following, quoted by Dr. Barber from Dr. Johnson, is 
a striking example of this faulty style : — 

" Homer was the greater genius, Virgil, the better artist. In the one, 
we most admire the man ; in the other, the work. Homer hurries us 
with a commanding impetuosity; Virgil leads * us with an attractive 
majesty. Homer scatters with a generous profusion; Virgil bestows 
with a careful magnificence." 

Some speakers fall into this melody as a trick of voice, and 
sometimes, it seems, because it is easier to give than another, 
as an old song is easier to sing than a new one. Monotony 
at the close of the sentence is especially noticeable. " 



VOCAL EXPRESSION. 97 

Practice. — i. Analyze the sense of the author. 

2. In style, construct the sentences so that the formal 
recurrence of similar clauses and sentences may not lead to 
the repetition of the same phrase of melody. 

3. If the reader or speaker clearly and deliberately thinks 
the thought, and appreciates the full significance of the lan- 
guage used, he will help himself largely to a correct use of 
pitch, slides, and cadence. 

4. Let the voice range about its middle pitch. 

5. Train the ear to detect monotony, recurring melody, 
feeble endings, and avoid them. 

6. Keep the mind free from constraint ; avoid drifting on 
one emotion. 

Measure of Speech. — Accent. In the production of all 
immediately consecutive sounds, the voice acts by alternating 
pulsation and remission. Two heavy, or accented, syllables 
cannot be uttered in immediate succession by a single vocal 
impulse. The word " kingdom " can be uttered by a single 
effort of voice, consisting as it does of an accented and an 
unaccented syllable ; but " king, king," requires two efforts 
with an appreciable hiatus or pause between them. 

Accent is the property of syllables ; its use is familiar to 
all. The accent on short syllables is the effect of increased 
force ; on long syllables it is the effect of time and force. 

Measure. — A perfect measure in speech consists of one 
or any greater number of syllables, not exceeding five, uttered 
during one pulsation and remission of voice. Syllables of 
long quantity may form a measure; those of short quantity 
cannot. 

Prose, as well as metrical composition, may be constructed 
with reference to the number of accented and unaccented 
syllables in a sentence. 

Every measure, in speech as in music, should occupy the 
same time in utterance. The imperfect bars would then 
require silence to take the time not occupied with the syllable 
7 



Rocks 




P 


a u 






fens 




P 


a u 








dews 


ind 




a u 






P 


A 




a 


u 



98 VOCAL CULTURE AND EXPRESSION. 

or syllables. This gives an easy and effective delivery, and 
allows ample time for breathing without breaking the sense. 

The bar | is employed to separate one measure from 
another. A measure with one syllable, of course, indicates 
slow movement, while a measure with four or five syllables 
indicates rapid movement. The mark P indicates pause ; 
a, the accented syllable; u, the unaccented. 

Caves P lakes P 

a u a u 

bogs P I 

a u 

shades of death 

a u a u 

universe of death P 

a u u a u 



The rest in the above measures occupies the time of the 
word " and." 

The pause is very essential to easy delivery, and to the 
sense. 

Again, breathing must still be carried on in speech. 
Natural breathing is rhythmical, suggesting that the same 
may be most economically accomplished by rhythmical breath- 
ing during speech; then the beating of the heart, sending 
blood to the lungs for purification, the action of the lungs, 
and the production of voice are in harmony, and, of course, 
friction is avoided. The speaker who neglects accent, as 
related to melody and pause, labors hard in delivery, and 
wearies himself unnecessarily. 

"All persons who speak agreeably and smoothly, speak for 
the most part by measure." Solely on the ground of ease in 
delivery, every speaker should studiously regard measure in 
speaking. 



VOCAL EXPRESSION. 99 

Quantity. Quantity, or the time occupied in uttering the 
vowels of any syllable, is closely connected with measure of 
speech. Some syllables are naturally long, others naturally 
short, depending upon the quantity of the vowel of the 
syllable. 

In uttering "a," a full sound at the beginning, succeeded by 
a vanishing effect, will be perceived by the ear. Prolonged, 
the sound will be found to be a compound or diphthong tone. 
a = a-f-e; I = I-)-e; = o-j-°°; u = u + oo; e = 
e + ee. e, u, a. are naturally short. 

Long quantity in speech produces the effect of smooth de- 
livery, and enables one to fill out a measure without rest, in 
slow and dignified utterance. 

Vowels naturally long, when given in short quantity are 
harsh and jarring. 

Faults. — i. Lack of full quantity on the long vowels. 
This breaks the measure, and makes the delivery difficult. 

2. Hastening on with no pauses to separate the ideas dis- 
tinctly. Grammatical punctuation does not indicate the only 
pauses. 

3. Pausing at regular intervals without reference to sense. 
Regularly pausing at the end of each verse [line] of poetry. 

4. Accompanying faults 1 and 2 is the destructive habit of 
running out of breath. 

Practice. — i. Give long quantity to the proper vowels 
on separate words. Select words of many syllables, and pro- 
nounce them deliberately, bringing out every syllable. 

2. The same in reading or speaking, with reference to 
pauses. 

3. Seek pauses, without breaking the expression, for the 
purpose of breathing. 

Stress. — Stress is the application of force to vocal tone. 
Dr. Rush was the first to analyze this quality in speech. 

An explosive force at the beginning of a syllable is called 
Radical Stress, represented to the eye by (» " Arm, " ARM." 



100 VOCAL CULTURE AND EXPRESSION. 

It is used to express vehemence, strength of will, and pas- 
sion. Dignified and clear utterance requires its use. 

" Up drawbridge, grooms ! What, warder, ho ! 
Let the portcullis fall." 

Median stress (O) may be compared to the musical swell. 
It is used to express tranquil and fervent emotion. It is 
smooth and continuous, and is adapted .to poetic expression. 
A degree of this stress is one distinction between the voice 
of a man of culture and a boor. This stress makes special 
use of long quantity. " O GOLDEN hour." 

" Father, thy hand 
Hath reared these venerable columns ; thou 
Didst weave this verdant roof ; thou didst look down 
Upon the naked earth, and forthwith rose 
All these fair ranks of trees. They, in thy sun, 
Budded and shook their green leaves in the breeze, 
And shot toward heaven." 

Terminal stress «) places the force on the final part of 
the tone. A growl, ending in explosion, illustrates this quality 
of voice. This quality suitably expresses stubborn passion, 
scorn, contradiction. It brings the diaphragm into unusual 
action. " I scOFF you." 

" Speak of Mortimer 1 
Zounds, I will speak of him ; and let my soul 
Want mercy, if I do not join with him. 
He said he would not ransom Mortimer; 
Forbade my tongue to speak of Mortimer." 

Compound stress (X) unites the radical and terminal 
stress. It is used to express contending emotions, as in sar- 
casm, contempt. It usually accompanies circumflex inflection. 
" Hath a dog money ? " 

Thorough stress ( ) is the full sustained force. It is 



VOCAL EXPRESSION. IOI 

used in shouting and calling. The boor speaks with thorough 
stress. Its legitimate use in expression is limited. "Boat 
ahoy ! Boat ahoy ! " 

Intermittent stress (^££z£~) is the tremor of the voice. It 
is characteristic of feebleness, old age, grief. It may be used 
in pathetic utterance. Used excessively it greatly mars de- 
livery. 

" Pity the sorrows of a poor old man, 
Whose trembling limbs have borne him to your door." 

" What ! canst thou not forbear me half an hour ? 
Then get thee gone, and dig my grave thyself ; 
And bid the merry bells ring to thine ear, 
That thou art crowned, not that I am dead. 
Let all the tears that should bedew my hearse 
Be drops of balm to sanctify thy head." 

Faults. — i. Lack of median stress. 

2. Capricious use of the several kinds of stress, without 
due reference to expressiveness. 

3. Faulty use of the intermittent stress ; trying to put pathos, 
solemnity, seriousness, in the voice by employing tremolo. This 
is a weakness very common to the pulpit. 

Practice. — 1. For facility in use, practice the several 
kinds of stress. 

2. Feel deeply the truth to be uttered. 

3. Use the appropriate stress in the light of the above 
instruction. 

Force. — Force, as applied in stress, is quite distinct from 
its application in the various degrees of loudness. The ap- 
plication of force in stress has respect to the way in which a 
tone is opened, continued, or closed. Any stress may possi- 
bly be given with loud or gentle force. 

The degree of force, loudness, depends upon (a) the num- 
ber of persons to be addressed, {b) the character of the emo- 
tion to be expressed. The following caution is to be ob- 
served : — 



102 VOCAL CULTURE AND EXPRESSION. 

i. The speaker is not necessarily heard because he shouts. 
The carrying quality of voice depends first upon its purity and 
articulation. Shouting sometimes prevents one from being 
understood. 

2. The strongest bawling and declamation does not express 
the deepest emotion. Vociferation is loud, but empty. 

Gentle Force is suitable to express chaste emotion, plain 
thought, etc. 

"Around this lovely valley rise 
The purple hills of Paradise. 
Oh, softly on yon banks of haze 
Her rosy face the summer lays ! 
Becalmed along the azure sky, 
The argosies of cloudland lie, 
Whose shores, with many a shining rift, 
Far off their pearl-white peaks uplift." 

Moderate Force expresses ordinary discourse and lively 
interest. 

"Jesus answered, My kingdom is not of this world. If my 
kingdom were of this world, then would my servants fight, 
that I should not be delivered to the Jews ; but now is my 
kingdom not from hence." 

Loud Force. — This is used in stronger emotion, suitable 
in parliamentary discussion, etc. 

"How far, O Catiline, wilt thou abuse our patience ? How 
long shalt thou baffle justice in thy mad career ? To what ex- 
treme wilt thou carry thy audacity ? Art thou nothing daunted 
by the nightly watch posted to secure the Palatium ? Nothing, 
by the city guards ? Nothing, by the rally of all good citi- 
zens ? Nothing, by the assembling of the Senate in this for- 
tified place? Nothing, by the averted looks of all here 
present ? " 

Very Loud Force. — This expresses strong emotion. 

" Follow your spirits, and, upon this charge, 
Cry, Heaven for Harry ! England and St. George ! " 



VOCAL EXPRESSION. 103 

Faults. — 1. Lack of energy in delivery, feeble enuncia- 
tion, suggesting feebleness of mental action. Sometimes it 
indicates downright laziness. 

2. Uncalled-for declamation, shouting, suggesting the 
effort to pass off noise for sense. Abuse of throat usually 
accompanies this vicious delivery. 

3. Spasmodic application of force, without reference to 
fitness, at times a careless mumble, and again loud, as if the 
speaker was suddenly awakened out of a reverie. 

Practice.- — i. Take into consideration the character of 
what you are delivering. Vary the force to suit. 

2. Avoid feebleness, avoid shouting; make the sound 
smooth and full; endeavor to make the tones carry, with as 
little expenditure of force as possible. There should be no 
"unpleasant reaction as to the feeling of the throat after 
speaking. This is always a sign of misuse. 

Movement. — The rates of movement in discourse are 
as follows : — 

1. Quick rate. — This expresses (a) rapid movement 
through space ; (J?) joyful or intense emotion ; (V) suggests 
lightness, etc. 

Moderate rate is used in simple narrative or didactic 
delivery. 

Slow rate suitably expresses weighty, dignified matter, 
profound emotions, slow movement through space, etc. 

Very slow rate is to express solemn and very weighty 
matter; labored, tedious motion. 

Faults. — 1. Utterance too rapid to be distinctly under- 
stood, and tiresome to the audience. Of course the rate of 
utterance varies with the temperament of the individual, but 
parts may be relatively fast or slow. 

2. Dull, slow rate, dragging along on the final syllable, and 
sometimes adding an "ugh." This is miserable. No audi- 
ence can resist its bad effects, unless the speaker is tossing 
them diamonds. 



104 VOCAL CULTURE AND EXPRESSION. 

3. Lack of variety in the discourse. The speaker rushes 
along in a tiresome fluency or incessant loquaciousness, usu- 
ally skipping all pauses. Fluency is not eloquence. Again 
the speaker may trudge along at a dull, monotonous pace, 
not having one spot of briskness. 

Practice. — Endeavor to achieve facility in the most rapid 
utterance. Take care not to sacrifice distinct articulation to 
rate of movement. 

2. Practise slow, deliberate movements. Make the time 
on quantity, not between words. Persons with impetuous 
rate should studiously practise slow rate. Persons with slow 
rate should spur themselves to quick rate. 

Qualities of Voice in Use. — Pure tone. This is the 
clear quality free from breathiness, etc. It is used to express 
plain thought and agreeable emotion, also sadness or grief, 
when not mingled with solemnity. 

" Ye bells in the steeple, ring, ring out your changes, 
How many soever they be, 
And let the brown meadow lark's note as he ranges, 
Come over, come over to me." 

Full tone. — This is the deep, large quality variously 
called the "orotund," the "pulmonic," etc. It is used to 
express grandeur, vastness, sublimity, etc. 

" Roll on, thou deep and dark blue ocean, roll ! 
Ten thousand fleets sweep over thee in vain." 

Aspirate tone. — This does not make all the breath up 
into voice, and is therefore not pure. 

In rare instances it degenerates into a whisper. This qual- 
ity expresses secrecy, darkness, indefiniteness, fervor, moral 
impurity. 

MacbetJi. Didst thou not hear a noise ? 

Lady M. I heard the owl scream, and the crickets cry. Did not you 

speak ? 
MacbetJi, When ? 



VOCAL EXPRESSION. IO5 

Lady M. Now. 

Macbeth. As I descended ? 

Lady M. Ay. 

Macbeth. Hark ! Who lies i' the second chamber? 

Lady JIT. Donalbain. 

Guttural tone. — This is the vicious quality of voice 
formed in the throat. It is sometimes called into use in 
dramatic execution, as in expressing malevolence, passions, 
utter disgust, etc. 

Faults and Practice. — i. Avoid the habitual use of 
any one quality. 

2. The guttural and aspirated qualities are less frequently 
used. They were previously enumerated as faults, but are 
sometimes appropriately employed in expression. As a habit, 
they are serious defects. 

3. Practise to command the several kinds of voice. 

4. Employ the voice that suitably expresses the matter. 
Phrasing or Grouping. — The function of phrasing is to 

unite the related parts of discourse, to separate the unrelated, 
to give prominence to the most important, and to cast other 
parts into shade. 

The lack of inflectional forms in English, together with the 
inversions of style, parenthetical and expletive clauses, etc., 
render it necessary to indicate by the voice the relation and 
importance of the different parts of the sentence. 

The means of phrasing are pause, pitch, and rate of utterance. 

In this connection, we think it profitable to give only one 
or two leading points in this part of analysis, without endeav- 
oring to study the unending variety of related parts in con- 
struction. 

The principal parts of a sentence, however far they may be 
separated by intermediate matter, must be plainly indicated. 

This may be done usually by emphasis, and by placing 
these related parts on the same pitch. 

Parenthetical expressions, intermediate matter between 



106 VOCAL CULTURE AND EXPRESSION. 

the essential parts of a sentence, and, usually, relative clauses, 
are to be subordinated by reading on a lower pitch with 
increased rate of utterance. Occasionally, the rate is slower 
for impressiveness. 

The o Id idea in current discourse is to be slurred also. 

" When, therefore, the Lord knew how the Pharisees had heard that 
Jesus made and baptized more disciples than John {though Jesus himself 
baptized not, but his disciples), he left Judea, and departed again into 
Galilee." 

" Joseph, who happened to be in the field at the time, SAW the carriage 
approach, and in an ecstasy of delight, hastened to meet it." 

The parts in small capitals in the above examples are to be 
related by pitch and emphasis, just as though the direct cur- 
rent had not been crossed by other streams. The words in 
italics are to be given on a lower pitch, and in more rapid 
movement. These are, of course, expressions of the strong- 
est contrast. The finer shades of relation must first be 
clearly distinguished by the mind, and then the organs of 
expression must be trusted to render them. 

Faults. — i. Too frequently allowing the voice to make 
a cadence where the thought is not completed. 

2. Uttering parenthetical matter on the same pitch, and at 
the same rate as the direct current of thought. 

3. Emphasizing the old idea. 

Practice. — 1. Construct the language so that the related 
parts may not be so complicated as to make it difficult to 
express them vocally. 

2. Carefully study the writing in the light of emf/iasis, as 
well as grouping. 

3. Practise reading complex and compound sentences, 
separating the principal parts and reading them, then adding 
the subordinate parts, and reading them in construction with 
the whole sentence. 

Climax. — There is an oral as well as a rhetorical climax. 
There is a climax of the discourse as a whole, a climax of 



VOCAL EXPRESSION. 10/ 

sentences and parts of sentences, to be taken into account in 
delivery. 

The speaker should not break out abruptly into a full 
vocal effort at the beginning of his discourse, but gradually 
rise as the matter increases in importance. 

The climax of vocal effort is parallel to rhetorical climax. 

The first clause should be uttered so as to prepare for the 
second, the second for the third, etc., increasing in interest 
and importance, till the highest point of thought and emotion 
is reached. 

Climax in discourses or sentences naturally comes before 
the very end. 

The most obvious elements in making vocal climax are 
rise in discrete pitch and increased force. 

Faults. — i. Uttering the different parts of a discourse 
or sentence on the same level of interest. 

2. Applying pitch and force at random. 

Practice. — i. Construct sentences with reference to 
oral climax. (See Rhetoric.) 

2. Find the highest point; rise to it in pitch and force. 

roar 
and 
devil come for 

If the them, 

not 
I will send 

them. 



not 
arms, 
arts, or was ambitious ? 

letters, 
great in who 

achieved anything 
Who ever 

Style. — Styles of discourse are named conversational, nar- 
rative, narrative and descriptive, didactic, public address, declama- 



108 VOCAL CULTURE AND EXPRESSION. 

tory, emotio7ial, according to the characteristic drift of the voice. 
The dramatic style combines all the rest. 

"Drift is founded on the various modes of vocality, time, 
force." Drift, or the leading melody or movement in delivery, 
enables one to recognize one selection as joyous, another as 
solemn, etc. 

In addition to the leading characteristic of any delivery, it 
will be seen that pitch, time, force, quality of voice, etc., 
vary on the different sentences ; hence drift does not mean 
sameness. 

Faults. — i. Although drift does not mean sameness, 
many readers and speakers are borne along on one emotion, 
until finally in extreme cases there seems to be a total absence 
of thought, and the delivery is a mere repetition of words. 

2. Improper drift. A proper observance of drift is nearly 
related to the "word fitly spoken, which is like apples of gold 
in pictures of silver." Many ministers read the psalm of joy 
and thanksgiving with the same minor sadness of the peni- 
tential psalms. Too many ministers whine the glad tidings, 
instead of joyfully proclaiming the gospel of good will. 

Practice. — i. Adapt the style to the occasion and text. 

2. Preserve the thread of the whole ; but insert the va- 
riety of the parts. 

3. Let the imagination have its play; be surrounded by 
the atmosphere of the piece. 

Imitative Modulation. — By the sound of the voice we 
may imitate the sound or noise of external objects. The roar 
of the ocean, the boom of cannon, the splash of the water, 
the hiss of the snake, etc., are naturally given with qualities 
of voice suggesting the sound, unless some vicious method 
prevents. 

A proper use of this modulation is valuable in making the 
facts real to the audience. Exaggerated, it becomes obtru- 
sive, and is therefore objectionable. 

Transition is the various changes of pitch, force, quality, 



VOCAL EXPRESSION. 



109 



rate of utterance, in the different parts of reading or speak- 
ing. It is needed to give appropriate expression to the vary- 
ing thought and emotion. Its effect is contrast of parts and 
needful variety. 

Practice. — 1. Keep the delivery conversational at basis. 



Medium rate 

and pitch. 

Soft. 



I rather think the gentle dove 

Is murmuring a reproof, 
Displeased that I from lays of love 

Have dared to keep aloof." 



Pure tone. 

High pitch. 

Medium rate. 



" Flower in the crannied wall, 
I pluck you out of the crannies ; 
Hold you here, root and all, in my hand. 
Little flower, — but if I could understand 
What you are, root and all, and all in all, 
I should know what God and man is." 



Full voice. 

Low pitch. 

Loud. 



" But I hear it rung continually in my ears, now 
and formerly, — ' The preamble ! What will be- 
come of the preamble, if you repeal this tax ? ' 
The clerk will be so good as to turn to this act, 
and to read this favorite preamble." 



Low pitch. 
Median stress. 

Slow rate. 

Full voice. 
Slightly aspi- 
rated. 



High pitch. 
Quick rate. 
Pure tone. 



" Lord, thou hast been our dwelling-place in all 
generations. Before the mountains were brought 
forth, or ever thou hadst formed the earth and the 
world, even from everlasting to everlasting, thou 
art God." 

" One touch to her hand, and one word in her ear, 
When they reached the hall door, and the charger 

stood near ; 
There was racing and chasing on Cannobie Lee, 
But the lost bride of Netherby ne'er did they see." 



Low pitch. 

Slow rate. 

Full voice. 

Median stress. 



" O God, thou bottomless abyss ! 

Thee to perfection who can know ? 

O height immense ! what words suffice 

Thy countless attributes to show ? " 



no 



VOCAL CULTURE AND EXPRESSION. 



low pitch. 
Monotone. 

Loud. 

High median 

stress. 

Aspirated. 
Low. 
Slow. 



Faster. 



Intermittent 
stress. 



" Toll, toll, toll, 
Thou bell by billows swung ! " 

" Forward, the light brigade ! 
Charge for the guns ! " 

Lady M. Alack, I am afraid they have awaked, 

And 't is not done. The attempt, and 
not the deed, 

Confounds us. Hark! I laid their dag- 
gers ready ; 

He could not miss them. Had he not 
resembled 

My father as he slept, I had done 't. 
My husband ! 
Macbeth. I have done the deed. Didst thou not 
hear a noise ? 



High. 

Pure tone. 

Loud. 

Softer. 

Low. 

Full voice. 

Monotone. 

Median stress. 

Slow. 

Middle pitch. 

Slow. 
Intermittent. 



"Ring! Ring! Ring! 
Joyful anthems full and loud ; 
For angels of love 
Came down from above, 
And brought a new year from God." 

" I am the resurrection and the life : he that be- 
lieveth in me, though he were dead, yet shall he 
live : and whosoever liveth and believeth in me 
shall never die." 

" By the rivers of Babylon, there we sat down : 
I yea, we wept when we remembered Zion." 



Analysis of Expressive Voice. — An analysis of voice 
based upon the mental, moral, and vital nature of man, pos- 
sesses the value of a summary of the previous discussion on 
expression. It will also consider the legitimate effect upon 
the auditor. 

Corresponding to man's mental, moral, and vital nature, we 
have thought, affection, passion. 



VOCAL EXPRESSION. Ill 

Mentality. Naturally the voice in intense mentality assumes 
a high pitch, with head resonance. The effect upon the ear 
is that of a hard, metallic, narrow sound. Its leading use is 
to convince the judgment. Persons of intense mental habits 
use this quality of tone, unless counterbalanced by some other 
influence. The mathematical professor says, " Now, young 
gentlemen, you see that problem may be solved in two ways," 
in this hard, penetrating quality of voice. 

Peevishness, complaint, scolding, slight pain, naturally 
express themselves in this tone ; for they are intense mental 
conditions. 

Passional. The vital or passional nature expresses itself 
by the large, full tone, on low pitch with force. Its effect 
upon the ear is that of largeness, strength. It is adapted to 
move the passions. Persons of strong, vital habits naturally 
use this tone. Mere animality, the swaggering barkeeper, 
the bully, illustrate the lowest stratum of this voice. The man 
mortally wounded expresses his agony in groans. This 
quality of voice legitimately expresses strong passion. It is 
the prevailing voice in parliamentary discussion, and strong 
composition cannot be appropriately expressed but by its 
use. 

Affectional. The affectional or moral nature expresses 
itself by the medium pitch, gentle force, smooth quality. Its 
effect upon the ear is gentleness, evenness. It is adapted to 
persuade. It lies between and balances the mental and vital 
qualities, suggesting the central truth of the purest religion, 
viz. : that the affectional or love nature of man should bal- 
ance and control the intellectual and passional. 

One of these qualities does not exclude the others. They 
blend variously; but usually one of them characterizes the 
composition. 

A triangle will suitably represent this analysis to the eye. 



112 



VOCAL CULTURE AND EXPRESSION. 




Quality. 

f Hard metallic 
<J quality, 

( high pitch. 

\ rieasant 
■{ qualit}', 
( medium pitch. 

f Full tone, 
] strong, 

[ low pitch. 



Expresses 



Thought. 



Affection. 



Passion. 



Adapted to 
Convince. 

Persuade. 

Move. 



PART II. 



ACTION-LANGUAGE CULTURE AND EXPRESSION. 



ACTION-LANGUAGE CULTURE AND EXPRESSION, 



CHAPTER I. 

EXPRESSION BY ACTION. 

Under the good English term of Action, will be discussed 
the language of Attitude, Gesture, and Facial expression. 

It is desirable in the first place to understand how the body 
becomes expressive of states of the mind. 

Sir Charles Bell has shown how intimately the vital organs, 
the heart and lungs especially, are united to each other, and 
to the muscles of the neck, face, and chest by a system of 
nerves. He has also shown how they are affected by the 
emotions of the mind. " Thus the frame of the body, con- 
stituted for the support of the vital functions, becomes the 
instrument of expression ; and an extensive class of passions, 
by influencing the heart, by affecting that sensibility which 
governs the muscles of respiration, calls them into operation, 
so that they become an undeviating mark of certain states or 
conditions of the mind. They are the organs of expression." 

Darwin, after an extensive study, treats the subject in his 
volume on the " Expression of Emotion in Man and Animals," 
and deduces three principles, which are valuable to students 
of expression, as showing the uniformity of the language of 
expression, and the importance of habit as a factor in the 
subject when practised as an art. 

They are as follows : — 

I. Serviceable, habitual action. Under this head, certain 
actions are originated because of their serviceableness. 

"Whenever the same state of mind is induced, however 
feebly, there is a tendency, through the force of habit and 
association, for the same movements to be performed, whether 
or not of service in each particular case." 



Il6 ACTION-LANGUAGE CULTURE AND EXPRESSION. 

II. Antithetic action. Certain acts are serviceable. 
"Now, when a directly opposite state of mind is induced, 

there is a strong and involuntary tendency to the performance 
of movements of a directly opposite nature, though these are 
of no use ; and such movements are in some cases highly 
expressive." 

III. Constitution of the nervous system, independently from 
the will, and to a certain extent independent of habit, as 
trembling, loss of color, etc. 

In addition to the above principles, which account for a 
large class of emotional expressions, there is a limited class 
of expressions purely volitional, and less emotional. They 
may be classified as follows : — 

(i.) Descriptive, as in representing the course of the 
rising or setting sun, or as in suggesting height, length, etc. 

(2.) Location, as in indicating the place or position of 
any object. 

Past action is also frequently reproduced. 

The Oratorical Value of Action. — ^schines said of 
Demosthenes, that when asked for the prime requisite in 
oratory, he replied, "Action," when asked for the second, 
he replied, "Action;" and for the third, " Action. "'* 

The " action " of Demosthenes may have included the par- 
ticulars and sum of man's whole activities ; but it seems quite 
probable that it was a strong way to express an important 
oratorical truth. Though dispensable to some degree, yet a 
perfect orator cannot be imagined without action. If a man 
feels the truth he attempts to express, he must and will have 
some actions of face and gesture. We have occasionally seen 
speakers quite without action, and they have always been as 
insipid as " expressionless " people. 

The language of action and form primarily reveals the 
heart, or inner states, of the man. A life of sin inevitably 

* Cicero de Orat., c 56. 



EXPRESSION BY ACTION. n « 

impresses the body unfavorably. A life on a high intellectual 
and spiritual plane lifts the body, and it lightens up with a 
■divine light; so the wise man taught that "a sound heart is 
the life of the flesh." (Prov. iv. 23.) "The heart of man 
changeth his countenance, whether for good or evil." (Son 
of Sirach.) This suggests that perfect expression has a 
moral basis. 

Action-language is the natural and universal language of the 
race. 

Mr. Darwin sent letters of inquiry to missionaries, and other 
intelligent persons, in all parts of the world, to ascertain the 
action of men under certain emotions. 

The fact was established that men in all grades of civiliza- 
tion and savagery expressed the different emotions by sub- 
stantially the same action. " Lay thy hand upon thy mouth, 
and go with us," said the spies (Judges xviii. 19), just as 
men do now, when they mean secrecy. Infants first use 
action-language. 

A foreigner on our street is unable to make himself under- 
stood with the scanty vocabulary at his command. He adds 
the universal language of action, and we at once understand 
him. 

" Man does not depend upon articulate language alone ; 
there is the language of expression, a mode of communication 
understood equally by all mankind, all over the globe, not 
conventional or confined to nations, but used by infants 
before speech, and by untutored savages." # 

Action is the language of the emotions. The emotions are 
mental on one side, and physical on the other. Through the 
nervous forces the physical is stimulated irresistibly to express 
whatever emotions may be in the consciousness. 

We see the persistency with which emotions tend to express 
themselves in a given way, by the fact that it is difficult to 

* Sir Charles Bell's " Anatomy and Physiology of Expression." 



Il8 ACTION-LANGUAGE CULTURE AND EXPRESSION. 

conceal our feelings when any emotion pronounces itself. 
Instead of expressing thought, this language tells how we 
are affected by the thought. This does not necessarily sep- 
arate action-language from thought. In analyzing any emo- 
tion, we can frequently succeed best by proceeding from 
the idea "which is the author and part of the emotion. If I 
give mathematically the height of a mountain, I, without ac- 
tion, make the statement that the mountain is so many feet 
high. If, however, I am moved by an appreciation of its lofti- 
ness, I lift my arm suggestive of height. So even gestures, 
called "gestures of location" are not without emotion. In 
harmony with this classification, according to another analy- 
sis, action is the language of the heart, expressing those 
moods that affect character, as Well as the transitory emo- 
tions. We have seen that the language of the habitual atti- 
tudes interprets character ; action is only an inflection of 
attitude. 

Action-language is elliptical Action says something in ad- 
dition to the spoken word. " Suit the action to the word," 
does not mean that you are to make the action say precisely 
the same thing that the word does. The orator who said, — 

" And we drop a tear 
On Lincoln's bier," 

and suiting the action to the word, with finger and thumb 
took the tear from his eye and dropped it, Jiardly appreciated 
the function of gesture. 

Gesture, improperly used, may contradict the spoken word ; 
correctly used, it re-enforces speech. 

The speaker has in iris mind to unfold the subject' before 
him ; instead of saying so, he lifts his hands, obliquely turn- 
ing the palms out, which indicates the purpose of opening up 
the matter. This gesture is in common use with most speak- 
ers, but analyzed by few. 

If the speaker in one passage is joyous in mood, and in 



EXPRESSION BY ACTION. II9 

another serious, he does not say it in words, but in action- 
language. 

Action-language is direct and instantaneous, in distinction from 
speech, which is analytic and successive, spoken by letters, 
syllables, words, phrases, sentences. A motion toward the 
door shows the indignation, and gives the order to go, more 
forcibly than any number of words that could be spoken. 

Action-language is the picture-making language. It addresses 
the eye. The value of it is indicated by the increasing use 
made of object teaching and illustration. 

An audience is not to be addressed as an individual. "Au- 
diences are not intelligent," some one has said. The speaker 
can say to an audience what he could not say to an individual 
of the audience. The individual independence and intelli- 
gence is merged in the mass of the audience, and then the 
emotions have freer play. 

Any emotion of an audience is strangely catching. Feel- 
ings of patriotism, indignation, etc., run from heart to heart 
like fire. The majority of sober people lose their wits in the 
panic of the crowd ; hence, audiences may be moved as indi- 
viduals cannot. The thoughtful and most intelligent in audi- 
ences are no longer themselves, and become more emotional. 

The staid, matter-of-fact Franklin was once lost in one of 
Whitefield's audiences. Franklin had stoutly refused to con- 
tribute to a certain orphanage enterprise under Whitefield's 
care, because disaffected by the location. He went to hear 
the preacher, when the appeal was made for the orphanage. 
Mr. Franklin said : " I had in my pocket a handful of copper, 
three or four silver dollars, and five pistoles in gold. As he 
proceeded I began to soften, and concluded to give him my 
copper ; another stroke of his eloquence made me ashamed 
of that, and I concluded to give him my silver ; and he finished 
so admirably that I gave him my gold, silver, and all." 

Now, as "audiences are not intelligent," and the "eyes of 
the ignorant more learned than ears," the value of the action- 



120 ACTION -LANGUAGE CULTURE AND EXPRESSION. 

language, addressing the eye and emotions, is made apparent. 
The number and kind of gestures, effective before an audi- 
ence, would be ludicrous when speaking to an individual. 

Action-Language is Cultivatable. — Even as speech, 
so may the language of action be cultivated and refined. 
That English is our mother tongue, does not imply that all 
are equally skilful in its use. Action-language is natural lan- 
guage, but it, too, must be cultivated. 

The emotions themselves may be refined. The perception 
of the true, the beautiful, the good, may be cultivated. Ex- 
pression of emotion, as of thought, of course must wait upon 
impression. 

i . Emotional expression is partially under the control of 
the will. This gives us the important starting-point that in- 
asmuch as emotional expression is more or less under the 
control of the will, therefore the expression is more or less 
cultivatable. 

2. By expressing any emotion it becomes stronger; as 
seen in persons who do not control their anger, becoming 
more and more easily provoked to this emotion, and also to its 
expression. The merest mechanical expression of any emo- 
tion reacts upon the mind, and really awakens that emotion. 
The opposite of this is true also. By the fancy we call up 
the idea of any emotion, and thus sympathetically feel such 
emotion and express it. 

3. Force of habit. It is well known that habitual move- 
ments are performed with greater facility than those not so. 
Availing ourselves of this law of nature, exercise upon the 
gestures more frequently used, cultivates ease in their use, 
and insures variety. 

Habit, however, is harmful if not utilized, as it allows the 
action of a few movements to repeat themselves over and over 
again, without reference to expressiveness. 

Faults. — 1. Habitual movements or attitudes. Lifting the 
eyebrows ; lounging on the desk ; closing the eyes ; hands in 



EXPRESSION BY ACTION. 121 

pockets, or nervously fingering some object ; spasmodically 
drawing the mouth down ; pounding ; tramping ; one move- 
ment of the arm, as the "sledge-hammer" gesture, etc.; 
bending, or other disadvantageous and unbecoming attitudes. 

2. Gestures 'out of time ; usually after time. 

3. Gestures awkwardly expressed. 



122 ACTION -LANGUAGE CULTURE AND EXPRESSION. 



CHAPTER II. 

GENERAL PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE. 

Preparatory Decomposing Exercises. — The first ef- 
fort of the student in this connection should be directed to 
free the arms, in short the whole body, from all rigidity ; to 
destroy habitual movements, by counteracting exercises and 
general development. Then the body is prepared to respond 
to the action of the mind. 

Exercises. — i. Work the fingers to free them from stiff- 
ness. 

2. Dangle the hands, and shake the arms freely from the 
shoulder, up and down, whirling in, then out ; now rotate the 
body on the hip-joints, letting the arms and hands fly whither 
they may, while rotating the body. 

3. Lift the main arm until the elbow is level with the 
shoulder. Shake it back and forth, letting the forearm dan- 
gle to the very finger tips. 

4. (1). Slowly lift the arm extended forward up as high 
as the level of the head, then down, the back of the wrist 
leading while moving up, the face of the wrist leading down, 
while the fingers trail. Take care to make the movements 
from the shoulder easy and flowing. 

(2.) Make this same movement ; hands level with the 
shoulders in bringing them near together in front ; then out 
till extended from the sides. Continue these ; first (1), then (2). 

In these movements, command a steady body, and feel bal- 
anced with the " sea-poise," as though buoyed up by a sur- 
rounding element. 

5. Practise any exercise that will give suppleness to the 
limbs. 



GENERAL PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE. 123 

In all these movements avoid making hard work of it. Let 
the mind be free, else the mental constraint will sympatheti- 
cally affect the muscles. 

6. Combination movement. This movement educates the 
movement of the hand and arm in preparing for a gest- 
ure, and also combines movements found in many gestures. 
It also educates the muscles to nicety and precision of 
action. 

Slowly lift the arm extended in front, the fingers dangling 
or trailing ; when the hand is level with the eye, hold and 
sight over the thumb to an object on the wall ; hold in this 
position and depress the wrist ; the open palm is now from you, 
imagine a ball against the palm, turn the hand out around this 
imaginary ball, now the fingers are depressed and palm up 
and out; fold the fingers on the palm, beginning with the 
little finger. We now have the half fist (thumb unfolded). 
Fold this half fist upon the forearm, the forearm on the main 
arm. Let the half fist dip in and down, the elbow moving up 
in opposition. Now unfold the arm, palm down, extending 
with a final thrust, fingers straightened. 

In this combination there are at least eight distinct move- 
ments. These may be resolved into three general movements, 
the preparation in lifting, the folding in, and the folding out. 
The latter is spiral. 

All the above exercises should be practised, first, by the 
right, then by the left arm and hand, and then by both. 

Cultivate muscular consciousness. When the hands are pas- 
sive by the sides, we feel their weight. 

The criteria that will be given in another place will be 
virtually a following out of this same principle of freeing the 
body, and educating the muscles to perform the most com- 
monly used expressions. 

As the corresponding emotions are associated with their 
appropriate expression, these criteria will have the additional 
advantage of the constructive element in their practice. 



124 ACTION -LANGUAGE CULTURE AND EXPRESSION. 

Laws. — There are seven general principles or laws of 
gesture, in conformity to which action must be made. 

i. Evolution. The expression centres in the eye, first 
manifests itself there, and then radiates to the extremities of 
the body. The pugilist watches his antagonist's eyes instead 
of his fists ; for the purpose and direction of the blow first 
manifests itself there. 

2. Civilization. According to this principle, you can treat 
truth as you treat a material object. In this case truth is 
symbolized. A cube of wood may be employed. The hand 
beneath it, palm up, supports the block ; but on the top it 
crushes it down. The hand edged in front, protects it ; at the 
side, limits or defines ; the hand removed from beneath 
refuses support, and it falls ; a movement against it overthrows 
it The hand, in these same positions or movements, not only 
appropriately but naturally expresses the same attitude or 
action toward fact or truth. 

3. Sequence. Gesture precedes or accompanies the spoken 
word. This principle is frequently violated. Mechanical 
gesture has this among other faults. " My Lord Northumber- 
land, we license your departure with your son." Just before 
or while uttering the word " departure " make a strong waft- 
ure of the hand, signifying, depart immediately. Make the 
same gesture while or after pronouncing the word " son," and 
mark the difference. 

4. Succession. In moving from the centre, the old does 
not cease till the new begins to act, that is, the eye does not 
relax till the body begins to move. The main arm does 
not cease motion till the forearm moves, the forearm does 
not cease till the hand begins to move. This succession pre- 
vents angular movements. 

5. Velocity. The rate of movement is inversely propor- 
tionate to the mass moved, A trifling matter is tossed off 
with a quick movement, but " Up the high hill he heaves a 
huge round stone," is labored and slow. 



GENERAL PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE. 1 25 

60 Suavity. Tender, kind emotions express themselves in 
circular movements. The more vehement the emotion, the 
more angular will be the gesture. 

7. Opposition. In making a movement of two parts of 
the body in gesture, each part should move in opposite direc- 
tions, or else a parallelism is perpetrated. To illustrate : If 
in salutation, the hand be lifted near the face, and the arm, 
body, and all together, be moved forward in bowing, we have 
a parallelism. If, however, while inclining the head and body 
we lift the hands, the movements between these parts are in 
opposition, then moving the head back to the erect position, 
we toss the hand out and down in opposition. 



126 ACTION -LANGUAGE CULTURE AND EXPRESSION, 



CHAPTER III. 

CRITERIA FOR PRACTICE. 

In the following chapters will be given the sentiments oftcn- 
est used, with their corresponding expression, for practice. 

The expressiveness of the various members will be con- 
sidered, the attitudes and inflections given. The criteria to 
follow are modifications of Delsarte's classification, and may- 
be analyzed and practised, in order to establish the habit of 
appropriately expressing the sentiments desired. 

In practice, gesture must always be made in reference to 
an object or audience. Avoid making the gesture too much 
to one side, and on too low a plane. 

Though the different parts of the body are considered 
separately, they do not act exclusively in expression. 

Each agent of action-language has its rale. It is well to 
note how each movement is transmitted from agent to agent. 
Inflections or fugitive movements are transmitted in this 
manner ; but attitudes are characteristic, and cannot be so 
treated. Whatever affects the agents severally may affect 
them simultaneously. 

The Chest in Expression. — In treating of the attitudes 
of the chest, we understand it includes the whole trunk, and 
shares the shoulder movements. 

The attitudes of the chest are : — 

First, Conditional, which shows condition of chest in itself. 

Second, Relative attitude, relating chest to an object. 

The Conditional Attitudes. — First, Expansion. It shows 
different degrees of excitement, courage, or power in the will. 

Second, Contraction. It shows different degrees of timidity, 
effort, pain, or convulsion in the will. 



CRITERIA FOR PRACTICE. 127 

Third, Relaxation. It shows different degrees of surrender, 
indolence, intoxication, prostration, or iiisaisibility cf will. 

Relative Attitudes. — i. Chest leaning directly to 
object shows vital or objective attraction ; obliquely, moral 
or subjective attraction. 

2. Chest leaning directly from object, vital or objective 
repulsion ; obliquely, subjective or moral repulsion. 

Movements. The body and shoulders lifted, shows exalta- 
tion, power, domination over object. 

Movement forward to object shows love or affection. 

Movement backward from object shows aversion. 

Attitudes. — i. In repose the chest is erect and normal. 

2. In reflection the chest bends forward. 

3. In sublimity the chest is broadened and lifted. 

4. In attack, or vehemence, it is expanded, broadened, and 
brought forward. 

5. It despair it is flattened. 

6. Leaning directly before an object indicates deference. 

7. Leaning obliquely to object indicates reverence. 

8. The body leaning back shows pride. 

9. Leaning sidewise is the attitude of wickedness ; it is 
fox-like. 

Positions. In physical and moral weakness the gravity of 
the earth beneath draws the body down. The gestures are 
made on a lower plane. 

In spiritual or moral exaltation the body is lifted, and 
gesture is made on a higher plane. 



128 ACTION -LANGUAGE CULTURE AND EXPRESSION. 



CHAPTER IV. 

THE LIMBS IN EXPRESSION. — THE FEET AND LEGS. 

A general principle called the Law of Force applies to 
position. Conscious weakness assumes strong positions, as 
in the case of the aged, infirm, and children learning to walk, 
placing their feet far apart. 

Conscious strength assumes weak positions, as in the case 
of athletes, and of men of mental and physical vigor, placing 
their feet nearer together. 

Mental and emotional conditions correspond to the physical 
states, and assume similar attitudes. 

Gravities. Three centres of gravity are to be considered. 
The weight upon the heel indicates the subjective state of 
mind ; the weight upon the toe, or ball of the foot, indicates 
that the object dominates the man ; the weight upon the 
centre indicates balance of mind. 

Primary attitude. In this attitude the weight is on both 
feet, separated by the width of one of the feet, and the toes 
turned out at an angle of seventy-five degrees. * This is a 
weak attitude. It characterizes respect, also infancy. If the 
feet be far separated, the expression is physical weakness, 
insolence, familiar ease, vulgar repose, intoxication. 

Second attitude. " In this attitude the strong leg is back- 
ward, the free one forward. This is the attitude of reflection, 
of concentration, of the strong man. It indicates the absence 
of passions. It has something of intelligence. It is neither 
the position of the child, nor of the uncultured man. It indi- 
cates calmness, strength, independence, which are signs of 
intelligence." 

Third attitude. " Here the strong leg is forward, the free 



THE LIMBS IN EXPRESSION. 1 29 

leg backward. This is the attitude of vehemence and of 
heroism. The orator who would appear passive, that is, as 
experiencing some emotion, or submitting to some action, 
must have a backward pose, as in the second attitude. 

" If, on the contrary, he would communicate to his audience 
the expression of his will or of his own thought, he must have 
a forward pose, as in the third attitude." 

Fourth attiticde. " Here the strong leg is behind, as in the 
second attitude, but far more apart from the other, and more 
inflected (bent at the knee). This is a sign of weakness 
which follows vehemence and terror." 

Fifth attitude. "This is necessitated by the inclination of 
the torso to one side or the other. It is a third to one side. 
It is a passive attitude, preparatory to all oblique steps. It 
is passing or transitive, and ends all the angles formed by 
walking. It is in frequent use combined with the second." 

Sixth attitude. This is the second, with limbs farther apart. 
It is the alternative attitude. The body faces one of the 
two legs. In this, the weight upon both feet indicates hesi- 
tation. 

Seventh attitude. ' This is a stiff second attitude, in which 
the strong leg and also the free one are equally rigid. The 
body in this attitude bends backward ; it is the sign of dis- 
trust, of scorn, of defiance." 

The Hand. — "By representing the hands disposed in 
conformity with the attitude of the figures, the old masters 
have been able to express every different kind of sentiment 
in their compositions. Who, for example, has not been sen- 
sible to the expression of reverence in the hands of the 
Magdalens by Guido, to the eloquence of those in the car- 
toons of Raphael, or the significant force in those of the 
Last Supper, by Da Vinci. In these great works may be 
seen all that Quintillian says the hand is capable of express- 
ing : ' For other parts of the body assist the speaker, but 
these, I may say, speak themselves. By them we ask, we 

9 



I30 ACTION -LANGUAGE CULTURE AND EXPRESSION. 

promise, we invoke, we dismiss, we threaten, we entreat, we 
deprecate, we express fear, joy, grief, our doubts, our assent, 
our penitence ; we show moderation, profusion ; we mark 
number and time.'"* 

The hand completes and interprets the expression of the 
face. It is the last of the two agents to act. 

Attitude. — 1. The normal position of the hand requires 
the fingers to be differential, the first finger quite straight 
and most separated, the second and third but little separated, 
and more bent, the fourth more separated from the third, and 
more straight. Straighten the thumb, and separate from the 
first finger. Avoid woodenness, which results from keeping 
the fimrers close together and straightened out. Avoid 
spreading the hand, and also all convulsive attitudes of it. 
Leave them entirely alone while speaking. This attitude 
should be mastered as the habitual one. It expresses calm 
repose. 

2. The fist, thumb outside on index finger. This expresses 
conflict, firmness, strength, concentration of force. 

3. Bend the first joint of the fingers, somewhat apart. 
This expresses the convulsive state. 

4. The hand lifeless, thumb falling into the middle. 
This attitude expresses prostration, lack of energy in the 

mind, imbecility. I have frequently seen this position of the 
hand. The necessity of avoiding it is evident. 

5. All the fingers and thumb thrown open, and separated 
slightly. This expresses exaltation, earnestness, animated 
attention. 

6. This same carried still further, stiffening the fingers 
straight, and separating to the utmost. This expresses exas- 
peration. 

The part of the hand next to the auditor is the expressive 
part. The back of the hand is mystical in expression. To 

* { - The Hand," by Sir Charles Bell, K. G. II., etc. 



THE LIMBS IN EXPRESSION. I3I 

the auditor it expresses secrecy, indefiniteness, indistinctness, 
doubt and darkness. 

The side or edge of the hand is definitive in expression. 
Turned to the auditor, or when most actively employed, it 
clearly limits or defines the facts. If I show the length of a 
stick, I separate the hands with the edge of each to the 
auditor. 

The palm of the hand is revelatory in expression. The 
speaker throwing his hands apart, and showing the palms, 
opens up the subject to the plain sight of the audience. 

Functions. The hand defines, holds, surrenders, inquires, 
caresses, assails, affirms, denies, conceals, reveals, accepts, 
regrets, supports, protects. 

Affirmations. 1. The teacher's affirmation defines. In this 
the index finger is prominent, the other fingers folded. 

2. Champion's affirmation supports ; palm up. 

3. Conservative's affirmation limits ; edge of the open 
hand leading in the action. 

4. The tyrant's affirmation puts down ; arms thrown down 
with palms to the floor. 

Inflections. — i. Impatient negation. In this the hand is 
tossed from the side. 

2. Distribution, "scattering seeds of kindness "; palms up, 
tossed from side to side. 

3. Grasping, assailment. In this the hands are suddenly 
closed, and drawn to the body. 

4. Exposition. The hands thrown open, the palms out. 
The Arms. — I think the feet and arm actions are more 

under the control of the will than other agents of expression, 
and more available in public effort. 

In the arms we distinguish the articulations ; the shoulder, 
the elbow, the wrist, and also the hand and fingers. 

The shoulder is a valuable agent of the orator. By a 
simple movement of the shoulder a vast deal may be expressed. 



132 ACTION -LANGUAGE CULTURE AND EXPRESSION. 

and it always makes a strong impression. The shoulders are 
a thermometer of passion. 

(a.) Normal condition indicates calm repose. 

(/>.) Shoulders elevated indicate passion. 

(c.) Shoulders depressed indicate feebleness. 

(a 7 .) Shoulders brought forward indicate pain. 

"Liars do not elevate the shoulders to the required height." 

The elbows are a thermometer of affection, self-will, self- 
esteem, self-consciousness. 

The positions are distinguished : — 

1. The normal position at the side. 

2. The elbows turned out slightly. This indicates tender- 
ness, and may be carried on to force and activity, self-asser- 
tion, conceit, strength, arrogance. 

3. The elbows turned in. This indicates self-suppression, 
poverty of spirit, weakness, inferiority, self-consciousness, im- 
potence, humility, subordination, fear. 

The wrist is a thermometer of vital energy of mind. 
The wrist turned back up indicates normal repose. The 
wrist turned edge up indicates preparation. The wrist 
turned front or 'face up indicates action. 

The orator needs great suppleness of wrist to give freedom 
to the play of the hand. 

Inflections of the Arms. — 1. Calm repose. This is the 
natural, easy position, with arms quietly by the side. 

2. Resigned appeal to heaven. , In this action the arm 
without lifting is turned face out, the hand is turned palm 
slightly up ; the face is turned in opposition, and uplifted to 
heaven. 

3. Accusation. In accusation, the arm is stiffened at the 
side ; the eye first accuses and centres upon the object, then 
the stiffened arm and hand are lifted till the eye sees the 
object down the arm. 

4. Imprecation* The arm is elevated overhead. The 



THE LIMBS IN EXPRESSION. 133 

hand is formed into a claw, ready as a bird of prey to pounce 
upon its victim. 

5. Remorse. In remorse the hand is made to grasp the 
back of the head, the forearm pressing against the face. 

6. Grief or shame. The face, in this emotion, is hid by 
the hand spread over it. 

7. Tender reproach. To express this, the hand is slightly 
closed, and drawn across the chest, away from the object, 
while the face is turned upon it in reproach. 

8. Pathetic repulsion. To express this emotion, the hand 
moves toward the object from the seventh position, while the 
head moves in the opposite direction. 

9. Befiediction. In benediction, the hands are lifted, the 
backs up. 

The above series, with one or two exceptions, is better 
adapted to dramatic expression ; but as a practice for ora- 
torio, it presents the feature of variety. 

The following series is more oratoric in character. 

1. Repulsion. In repulsion, the hand is lifted, palm out, 
thumb near the ear. It is then shoved out straight in front, 
while the head moves back in opposition. 

2. Attraction is the opposite of repulsion. 

3. Supplication. In supplication, the arm is lifted tc 
heaven, the hand open and held half horizontal. Do not 
hold the arm immediately in front. 

4. Appellation. In appellation, the forearm is lifted per- 
pendicular, the palm of the hand out. 

5. Affirmation. In this gesture the hand is thrown down 
in front, the palm out. 

6. Salutation. The hand is raised gracefully, the head 
inclining to meet it ; after they have approached near each 
other, the hand is thrown gently forward, the head moving in 
opposition. The hand is lifted in proportion to the amount 
of deference or respect expressed. Common salutation of 



134 ACTION -LANGUAGE CULTURE AND EXPRESSION. 

men who are equals is frequently made by a wafture of the 
hand from the region of the stomach. 

7. Negation. The arm is thrown across the space in front 
of the student toward the back, the palm down. 

8. Declaration. This is the same movement, with the palm 
of the hand half up. 

9. Rejection. This is the same as negation, with the thumb 
edge of the hand down. It sweeps all out of the way. 

The following angles exhibit the different degrees of eleva- 
tion in affirmation. 



X 

\- 

D 

EC 


/ . 




>\7 / 


■3 
-1 
O 

<n 

CD 
< 






&^")T IS- ASSERTION. 



fo; 



■Sot 



%•. 



Angles of Affirmation and Negation. 



The angle indicates the position of the arm at the close 
of the gesture. Absolute truth is directly overhead. Affirma- 
tion, with moderate assertion, is at right angles to our per- 
pendicular. In asserting impossibility, the arm makes the 
angle back of the perpendicular of the body. 

The following medallion of inflection conveniently exhibits 



THE LIMBS IN EXPRESSION. 



135 



to the eye the angles, arcs, and direction the hands and arms 
take in expression. The lower part of the circle corresponds 
to the feet. 




Medallion of Inflections. 



Universality, amplitude, — these are expressed by the hands 
forming part of a circle with outstretched arms. 

The opposite is a fine gesture, and less used. 

The arrows indicate the direction of the hand and arm. 
In this the hand is overhead. 

The hand circling from front back, indicates glorification 
or victory achieved ; the opposite, exhortation or victory ahead. 
The straight lines interpret themselves. 



I36 ACTION-LANGUAGE CULTURE AND EXPRESSION. 



CHAPTER V. 

THE FACE AND HEAD IN EXPRESSION. 

" The face is the mirror of the soul " because it is the 
most impressive agent, less under the control of the will, and 
consequently the most faithful agent in rendering the states 
of the soul. 

Not only momentary emotions may be read in the face, 
but the conformation of the features of the face reveals the 
aptitude of the individual, his temperament and character, 
always, of course, allowing for the freedom of man to will 
and live above his natural appetences. 

But every emotion of the soul writes itself upon the counte- 
nance, and persistency will fix it there. 

We have characteristically sad, joyful, thoughtful, stupid, 
vicious faces. 

We have seen the same face undergo marked and some- 
times remarkable changes, as the individual has changed his 
life. The face gives the hand more significance in gesture. 

The Eyes. — The eyes and ears are called the organs of 
the spiritual sense. The other organs of sense must come in 
contact with the object, in order to know of its qualities or 
character. 

With the ear we can hear sounds produced afar off, and 
with the eye we can see the object that impresses us, though 
many leagues in the distance. 

The eye then is the highest as an agent of expression. 

It has long been characterized as the "window of the 
soul." 

The eye is an intellectual agent, denoting the various states 
of the mind. 



THE FACE AND HEAD IN EXPRESSION. 1 37 

In the normal eye the upper lid just touches the iris. A 
small eye indicates strength ; a large eye indicates languor. 

The eye opens only in the first emotion, then it becomes calm. 

The eyebrow lifted and the voice lowered indicates a desire 
to create surprise, and a lack of mental depth. 

The lowered brow signifies retention, repulsion, like a 
closed door. 

The elevated brow is like the open door. The eyebrow is 
the door of intelligence. 

The inflections are in accord with the eyebrows. When the 
brow is raised, the voice is raised. This is the normal move- 
ment of the voice in relation to the eyebrow. 

Sometimes the eyebrow and voice are in contradiction. 
Then there is always an ellipse ; it is a thought unexpressed. 

In expressing the word "indeed," if the brow and voice are 
lowered, the case is grave ; if the brow and voice are elevated, 
the case is mild, amiable ; if the voice is raised and the brow 
lowered, the case is doubtful, suspicious. 

i. In calm repose, the eye is normal. 

2. In firmness ) the eye partially closes itself. 

3. In stupor, the eyelid hangs. 

4. In astonishment, the lids are dilated, the brow raised. 

5. In disdain, the brow is held normal, the lid is dilated. 

6. In perplexity, the brow and lids contract. 

The Head. — Besides the habitual bearings of this agent 
of expression which are quite permanent, we have, — 

1. The movements of attitude which are temporarily per- 
manent. 

2. The movements of inflection, or fugitive movements. 
The head has nine primary attitudes from which the others 

proceed. In the normal attitude the head is neither high nor 
low. In the concentric, the head is lowered ; in the eccentric, 
the head is elevated. 

There are some general facts to be observed as to position 
of the head. 



I38 ACTION -LANGUAGE CULTURE AND EXPRESSION. 

i. The head suppressed upon itself (bent forward) indi- 
cates suppression of self. 

2. Head thrown up indicates assertion of self. 

3. Dropping the head upon the breast indicates shame, 
remorse. 

Fugitive Movements of the Head — Inflection. — 1. 
Forward movement ending in upright one, elevated chin, in- 
dicates interrogation, hope, appellation, desire. "Will you 
go?" 

2. The same, chin lowered, — doubt, resignation. "I am 
resigned to it, wise or unwise." 

3. Nod of the head, forward movement, confirmation, 
"Yes, all well." 

4. Brusque movement forward, menace of a resolute 
man. " Send us the prisoners, or you shall hear from us." 

5. Head back, exaltation. 

6. Brusque movement backward, menace of a weak man. 
" Now, if you don't do it, I will make you pay for it." 

7. Rotative movement from shoulder to shoulder, impa- 
tience, regret. " I regret it very much." 

8. Rotating head, perpendicular, — negative, " No." 

If the movement ends toward the interlocutor, simple nega- 
tive, " No, sir." If the movement ends opposite to him, nega- 
tive with distrust. 

9. The rotative, then forward movement, — exaltation. 
When the head has a serious part to play, it communicates 

an inflective movement to the hand which renders it terrible. 

Menace. In the fugitive movement we have indicated the 
menace of (a) weakness, (o) resolution. This can be trans- 
ferred to the hand. " You will have a quarrel to settle with 
me." 

" A man who menaces with his head is not sure of his aim, 
but one who menaces with his hand is sure of striking right. 
In order to do this, the eye must be firmly fixed, as the eye 
necessarily loses its power and accuracy by a movement of 



THE FACE AND HEAD IN EXPRESSION. 1 39 

the head. There is great power in the menace communicated 
by the hand. The head menace is more physical, the hand 
menace more intellectual. 

" When the speaker does not wish to express his opinion, 
and has the fear of compromising himself with his eye, he 
turns aside his glance, and the menace is communicated to 
the shoulder. This has less strength, because it is rendered 
by one of the sensitive agents." 



ATTITUDES OF THE HEAD. 

Sentiments. Expression. 

1. Calm repose, strategem . . . -{ Head easily erect. 

2. Cunning, envy, hate, suspicion, i Head inclined from ob J ect sidewise 

( to self. 

,. ( The head inclined from object, eye 

3. Sensualism < J J 

i. to corner next to object. 

_. . , ( Head turned away from object and 

4. Pride, arrogance • ., , 



thrown back. 

5. Contemplation \ Head inclined before the object. 

6, Vehemence, exaltation, aban- 



, Head thrown back, 
donment of self . . . . ( 

Lifting the whole body with the head, exaltation of self over 
object ; expresses arrogance. 

7. Veneration, reverence . . . . \ Head inclined obliquely to object. 

8. Tenderness, affection ....-( Head inclined laterally to object. 

9. Nonchalance, confidence . . . ■{ Head inclined away from object. 

The student should cultivate consciousness in the crown of the 
head. 



- - 



PART III. 



EXPRESSION 



EXPRESSION. 



The Speaker before the Audience. — When as speaker 
you appear before an audience, in the pulpit, at the bar, or on 
the platform, you are supposed to be informed as to your sub- 
ject, and to have arranged the matter for the easiest and most 
effective presentation. You must be thoroughly possessed by 
the subject and forget self, and in a measure the audience. 
Think not how to appear great, nor to win the applause of 
the audience. Your purpose now is to give the truth that 
stirs your own soul. All tricks and artifices are vain. Have 
a purpose ; aim to accomplish it. Now leave all practice y 
execution is called for. Nothing so " makes the judicious 
grieve " as a speaker practising before his audience. 

The speaker's bearing should be strong and confident, yet 
deferential. Stand free, but do not lounge. Very plainly 
the speaker should face the audience. Do not turn the back 
upon the audience even when addressing the past ; any posi- 
tion that does not show part of the face to the audience is 
not admissible. Keep your eye upon the audience, for this 
gives controlling influence over them. 

Every change of attitude should be controlled by a purpose, 
and be made only as a preparation for the delivery of a new 
idea, or before a paragraph or other division of the discourse. 
Thought should be taken to keep the lungs well supplied and 
the chest lifted. Just before speaking the first sentence, 
slowly fill the lungs by breathing through the nostrils, in the 
mean while looking upon the audience to challenge their at- 
tention. In beginning do not mumble the sounds. It is 
safe to say that eight out of every ten speakers begin in such 



144 EXPRESSION. 

a low and weak voice, that one half of an audience of aver- 
age size do not hear the first part of the discourse. On the 
other hand, caution must be exercised not to begin by shout- 
ing. Begin on the conversational level. Direct the voice to 
the farthest person in the room, and with clearness and force 
lift the voice to this auditor, and be sure he hears. 

In execution, your first effort should be to make yourself 
understood; therefore clearly or distinctly speak the words, 
giving every syllable its due time in pronunciation, not pret- 
tily, but with force and smoothness. 

In the second place, you must make yourself felt. " Elo- 
quence consists in feeling a truth yourself, and in making 
those who hear you feel it." Do not seek to produce an 
" effect." This is an abomination. In expression, while pre- 
serving the unity, you must seek variety. Avoid being borne 
along by one emotion. Let thought and emotion have full 
play ; let voice and action, untrammelled, do their part in re- 
sponding. Whisper, plead, storm, persuade, in keeping with 
the thought and emotion. Lead the audience up step by step, 
seeking the legitimate conviction, " The truth, we will defend 
it, we will live it ! " 

The closing words should be adapted to compose the emo- 
tions and leave the thought of the effort upon the mind. 
Prof. Monroe gave his pupils the appropriate motto, " Have 
something to say; say it; stop." 

As a reader you should be familiar with what you are to 
read. Avoid bending over to the page. If holding the 
book, lift it about as high as the shoulder, in the left hand, 
little finger and thumb keeping the book open, the remaining 
fingers supporting it. In representing two characters, for 
one, read to the right ; for the other, to the left. Less action 
is required in reading than in speaking, except in strong fo- 
rensic declamation or in dramatic delineation. 

Think the thought, recall the scenes of the subject ; give 
it to the audience. 



EXPRESSION. 145 

Analysis of Written Language. — Speech expresses 
thought and emotion by the varied use of emphasis, time, 
force, pitch, quality of voice, etc., as previously discussed. 

Written language should be carefully analyzed to find out 
the sense of the author, the various sentiments, the strength 
of passion involved, in order to determine what parts require 
prominence, what are to be cast into the shade, what parts 
are separated in the sentence, though related in thought, that 
emphasis, pitch, inflection, rate, etc., may be intelligently ap- 
plied. Every piece of composition has its own peculiar atmos- 
phere, and the speaker should find it and let it permeate his 
mind. 

With the selections for practice will be given the principal 
points in the analysis of the pieces. I will give first the 
style of delivery ; second, the emotional attitude of the 
speaker; and indicate other points in analysis by the me- 
chanics of expression. Proper emphasis, slurring and pauses, 
are the leading features in the mechanics cf expression, and 
these are indicated in some of the selections given here for 
practice.* 

Small capitals indicate the words that take the leading 
emphasis ; italics, the words in the deepest shade (read on 
lower pitch and faster), the "0," a pause. Every measure, 
as in music, is to occupy the same time, to be consumed in 
jDronunciation or pauses. Long quantity, though unaccented, 
may fill a measure. Be free in action, afterward criticise ac- 
cording to the principles of action-language. 

The finer shades of expression must be wrought out by the 
student in the light of the instruction already given, as an at- 
tempt to give a complete analysis in book instruction would 
be laborious and confusing, if not impossible. 

* Other selections are given for the students to analyze. 



I46 EXPRESSION. 



I. THE ELDER BROTHER. — Monroe's Reader. 

Simple Conversational. — Observe the inquiring mood of the elder 
brother, the easy-going mood of the landlord. Medium pitch, slow rate, 
simple inflections. 

A I gentleman | of England | had | two sons ; | | 
the elder of ] whom,.0 | eager for \ adventure, | and \ weary 
of I the restraints \ of home, | | obtained his | father's per- 
mission I tO gO I ABROAD. I I I 

Ten I years | later, | a | traveller, | | prema- 
turely I old, I covc?-ed \ with rags \ and dust, | stopped at | 
an inn | near the | paternal | estate. | | Nobody | knew 
him, I al-\ though, | by his \ eonversa- \ tion, | he ap- 
peared I to have had | some | previous | AC- | quaint- 
ance I with the | neighborhood. | | Among | other | 
questions, | he asked | concerning | the fa- | ther of | the 
two I sons. I I I 

"Oh, I he's dead," I said the \ landlord; | | "been 
dead | these five | years ; | poor | old | man ! | | dead 
and I forgot- | ten | long | ago ! " | | | 

"And I his sons ? " | said the \ traveller, | after \ a 
pause; | "I | believe | he had | two." | | 

"Yes, I he I had. | Thomas | and James. | | 
Tom I was the | heir. | But | he was | unsteady; | 
had I a roving | .disposition ; | gave | his | father | no 
end I of trou- | ble. | Poor | old man ! | | poor | old 
man ! " | | And the | landlord, | shaking \ his head \ 
sorrow- \ fully, | drained a | good tank- j ard of | his own | 
ale, I by way of | solace | to his | melan- | choly | reflec- | 
tions. j I I 

The trav- | eller | passed a | trembling | hand j over | 
his own I pale brow | and rough | beard, | and said | 
again, — | | 

" But I James, | the sec- | ond son, | he is alive 5 " 

\ 1 0" 1 



EXPRESSION. I47 

"You would I think I so," I said the \ landlord, | 
smacking | his lips. | | "Things | have hap- | pened well 
| for him. | | The old | man dead ; | his broth- | er 
dead | too — " 

" His | brother | dead ? " | said the \ travel- \ ler, with | a 
start. | | 

" Dead, | or as | good as | dead. | | He went | off 
on | his trav- | -els ten | years | ago, | and has [ never | been 
heard | of since. | | So James | has come | into \ the 
es- ] tate, | and | a brave | estate | it is, | and | a gay 
| gentleman I is James — | 00 | What! going, | sir?" 
I | 
"I beg | your par- | don," | said the \ travel- \ ler, ris- \ 
ing. | "I — | I | have | business | with this | James." 

II. THE CHEERFUL LOCKSMITH. — Charles Dickens. 

Animated Narrative. — To express the cheerfulness of this selection, 
read on quite a high pitch, making wide intervals when required, to the 
lower pitches. Long quantity, pure tone. Give "tink" a metallic 
sound. 

From the workshop of the Golden Key there issued forth a 
tinkling sound, so merry and good-humored, that it sug- 
gested the idea of some one working blithely, and made 
quite pleasant music. Tink, tink, tink, clear as a silver bell, 
and audible at every pause of the streets' harsher noises, 
as though it said, " I don't care ; nothing puts me out. I am 
resolved to be happy." 

Women scolded, children squalled, heavy carts went 
rumbling by, horrible cries proceeded from the lungs of 
hawkers ; still it struck in again, no higher, no lower, no 
louder, no softer ; not thrusting itself on people's notice a 
bit the more for having been outdone by louder sounds, — 
tink, tink, tink, tink, tink. 

It was a perfect embodiment of the still small voice, free 



I48 EXPRESSION. 

from all cold, hoarseness, huskiness, or unhealthiness of any 
kind. Foot passengers slackened their pace, and were dis- 
posed to linger near it ; neighbors who had got up sple- 
netic that morning, felt good-humor stealing on them as they 
heard it, and by degrees became quite sprightly. Mothers 
danced their babies to its ringing. Still the same magical 
tink, tink, tink, came gayly from the workshop of the Golden 
Key. 

Who but the locksmith could have made such music ? A 
gleam of sun shining through the unsashed window and check- 
ering the dark workshop with a broad patch of light, fell full 
upon him, as though attracted by his sunny heart. There 
he stood working at his anvil, his face radiant with exer- 
cise and gladness, his sleeves turned up, his wig pushed 
off his shining forehead, the easiest, freest, happiest man 
in all the world. 



III. LOCHINVAR. — Sir Walter Scott. 

Lively Narrative. — Observe that the author is in sympathy with 
Lochinvar. Observe, also, the haughty attitude of the father, the defer- 
ential-indifferent attitude of Lochinvar. High pitch, quick rate, medium 
stress, frequent wide intervals. 

1. O young Lochinvar has come out of the West, 
Through all the wide border his steed was the best ! 
And save his good broadsword, he weapon had none, 
He rode all unarmed, and he rode all alone. 

So faithful in love, and so dauntless in war, 
There never was knight like the young Lochinvar. 

2. He stayed not for brake, and he stopped not for stone, 
He swam the Eske River where ford there was none ; 
But ere he alighted at Netherby gate, 

The bride had consented, the gallant came late : 
For a laggard in love, and a dastard in war, 
Was to wed the fair Ellen of young Lochinvar. 



EXPRESSION. 149 

So boldly he entered the Netherby hall, 

'Mong bridesmen, and kinsmen, and brothers, and all: 

Then spoke the bride's father, his hand on his sword 

(For the poor craven bridegroom said never a word), 

" O come ye in peace here, or come ye in war, 

Or to dance at our bridal, young Lord Lochinvar ? " 

* 
So stately his form, and so lovely her face, 
That never a hall such a galliard did grace ; 
While her mother did fret, and her father did fume, 
And the bridegroom stood dangling his bonnet and plume ; 
And the bridemaidens whispered, "'Twere better, by far, 
To have matched our fair cousin with young Lochinvar." 

One touch to her hand, and one word in her ear, 

When they reached the hall-door, and the charger stood near ; 

So light to the croupe the fair lady he swung, 



run Gf 



s j 



So light to the saddle before her he sp 

" She is won ! we are gone ! over bank, bush, and scar, 

They '11 have fleet steeds that follow," quoth young Lochinvar. 



IV. TOUSSAINT L'OUVERTURE. — Wendell Phillips. 

Oratoric. — Conversational basis. Observe the easy hut vivid and 
incisive style in this short extract from a speech of this prince of 
American orators. Medium pitch, slow rate, radical stress, downward 
slides. 

Mounting his horse, and riding to the eastern end of the 
island, Toussaint looked out on a sight such as no native 
had ever seen before. Sixty ships of the line, crowded by 
the best soldiers of Europe, rounded the point. They were 
soldiers who had never yet met an equal, whose tread, like 
Caesar's, had shaken Europe, soldiers who had scaled the 
pyramids and planted the French banners on the walls of 
Rome. He looked a moment, counted the flotilla, let the 
reins fall on the neck of his horse, and turning to Cristophe, 
exclaimed, "All France is come to Hayti ; they can only 



150 EXPRESSION. 

come to make us slaves ; and we are lost ! " He then recog- 
nized the only mistake of his life, — his confidence in Bona- 
parte, which had led him to disband his army. Returning 
to the hills, he issued the only proclamation which bears 
his name and breathes vengeance : " My children, France 
comes to make us slaves. God gave us liberty; France 
has no right to take it away. Burn the cities, destroy the 
harvests, tear up the roads with cannon, poison the wells, 
show the white man the hell he comes to make." And he 
was obeyed. 

When the great William of Orange saw Louis XIV. cover 
Holland with troops, he said, " Break down the dikes, give 
Holland back to the ocean"; and Europe said, "Sublime!" 
When Alexander saw the armies of France descend upon 
Russia, he said, " Burn Moscow, starve back the invaders " ; 
and Europe said, " Sublime ! " This black saw all Europe 
marshalled to crush him, and gave to his people the same 
heroic example of defiance. 

It is true, the scene grows bloodier as we proceed. But, 
remember, the white man fitly accompanied his infamous 
attempt to reduce freemen to slavery with every bloody and 
cruel device that bitter and shameless hate could invent. 
Aristocracy is always cruel. The black man met the attempt, 
as every such attempt should be met, with war to the hilt. 
In his first struggle to gain his freedom, he had been gener- 
ous and merciful, saved lives and pardoned enemies, as the 
people in every age and clime have always done when rising 
against aristocrats. Now, to save his liberty, the negro 
exhausted every means, seized every weapon, and turned 
back the hateful invaders with a vengeance as terrible as 
their own, though even now he refused to be cruel. 

Leclerc landed. Cristophe took two thousand white men, 
women, and children and carried them to the mountain for 
safety, then with his own hands set fire to the splendid palace 
which French architects had just finished for him, and in forty 



EXPRESSION. 151 

hours the place was in ashes. The battle was fought in its 
streets, and the French driven back to their boats. Wherever 
they went they were met with fire and sword. Once resisting 
an attack, the blacks, Frenchmen born, shouted the Marseilles 
hymn, and the French stood still ; they could not fight the 
Marseillaise. And it was not till their officers sabred them on 
that they advanced, and then they were beaten. 

He then sent word to Leclerc, " I will submit. I could 
continue the struggle for years, — could prevent a single 
Frenchman from safely quitting your camp. But I hate blood- 
shed. I have fought only for the liberty of my race. Guar- 
antee that, I will submit and come in." He took the oath to 
be a faithful citizen, and on the same crucifix Leclerc swore 
that he should be faithfully protected, and that the island 
should be free. 

As the French general glanced along the line of his splen- 
didly equipped troops, and saw opposite Toussaint's ragged, 
ill-armed followers, he said to him, " L'Ouverture, had you 
continued the war, where could you have got arms ? " " I 
would have taken yours," was the Spartan reply. 

He went down to his house in peace ; it was summer. Le- 
clerc remembered that the fever months were coming, when 
his army would be in hospitals, and when one motion of that 
royal hand would sweep his troops into the sea. He was too 
dangerous to be left at large. So they summoned him to at- 
tend a council ; he went, and the moment he entered the 
room the officers drew their swords and told him he was a 
prisoner. 

He was sent to the castle of St. Joux, to a dungeon twelve 
feet by twenty, built wholly of stone, with a narrow window, 
high up on one side, looking out on the snows of Switzerland. 
In this living tomb the child of the sunny tropics was left to 
die. 



15- EXPRESSION. 



V. SPEECH ON AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE. —Patrick 

Henry. 

Oratoric. — Observe the strong, bold attitude of the author. Medium 
pitch ; slow rate ; radical stress. Observe the opportunity for climax. 

Mr. | President, | | it is | natural to | man | to in- 
| dulge in the il- | lusions of | hope. | | | We are [ 
apt to | shut our | eyes | a- | gainst a | painful | truth, | 
| and | listen to the | song of that | syren, ] | till 
she trans- | forms us | into | beasts. | | | Is | this 
the [ part of | wise | men, | en- | gaged in a | great and | 
arduous | struggle | for | liberty? | | | Are we dis- 
| posed | to | be of the | number of | those | who | hav- 
ing | eyes, | see not, | and | having | ears, | hear not the | 
things | which so | nearly con- | cern our | temporal sal- | 
vation ? | | | For | my | part, | what- | ever | an- 
guish of | spirit | it may | cost, | | I am | willing to | 
know the | whole | truth ; | | to | know the | worst, | 
| and to pro- | vide for it. | | | 

They | tell us, | sir, | that we are | weak, | un- | able 

to | cope with so | formidable an | adversary. | | ) 

But | when shall we be | stronger ? | | | Will it be the 

| next | week, | or the | next | year ? j | | Will it | 

be | when we are | totally dis- | armed, | and | when a | 

British | guard | shall be | stationed in | every | house ? | 

| | Shall we | gather | strength | by | irreso- | lution, 

| and in- | action ? | | | Shall we ac- | quire the 

| means of ef- ] fectual re- | sistance, | by | lying su- | 

pinely | on our | backs, | and | hugging the de- | lusive | 

phantom of | hope, | un- | til our | enemies | shall have | 

bound us | hand and | foot ? | | | Sir, | we are | 

not | weak, | Oifwe | make a | proper | use of | those | means 

| which the | God of | nature | hath | placed in our | 

power. | | | Three | millions of | people | | armed 

in the | holy | cause of | liberty, | and in | such a | country | 



EXPRESSION. 153 

as I "that which | we pos- [ sess, | are in- | vincible | by | 
any | force | which our | enemy | can | send a- | gainst us. 

I I I Be- I sides, sir, | we shall | not | fight our | 
battles a- | lone. | | | There is a | just | God | who 
pre- I sides [ over the | destinies of | nations ; [ | and | 
who will I raise up | friends | to | fight our | battles | for 
us. I I I The | battle, | sir, | is | not to the ] strong 
a- I lone, | | it | is to the | vigilant, | the | active, | the 

I brave. | | | Be- | sides, sir, | we have | no e- | 
lection. | | | If we were | base enough | to de- | 
sire it, | it is | now | too \ late | to re- | tire from the | 
contest. I I I There is | no re- | treat, | | but in 
sub- I mission | and | slavery. | | | Our | chains 
are | forged. | | | Their | clanking | may be | 
heard | on the | plains of | Boston. | | | The | war 

I is in- I evitable, | | and | let it | come ! | | | 
I re- I peat it, sir, | | let it | come ! | | | It is in 

I vain, sir, | to ex- | tenuate the | matter. | | I | know 
not I what | course | others may | take; | | but | as for 

I me, I I give me | liberty ; | j or | give me | death ! 

I J 1 



. VI, CASSIUS TO BRUTUS. — Shakespeare. 

Dramatic. — Notice the shrewd, argumentative method of Cassius. 
High pitch; "mental " tone ; many circumflexes ; moderate rate; radical 
stress ; quotations in italics. 

Well, honor is the subject of my story. 

I cannot tell what you and other men 

Think of this life, but, for my single self, 

I had as lief not be as live to be 

In awe of such a thing as I myself, 

I was born free as Caesar ; so were you : 

We both have fed as well ; and we can both 

Endure the winter's cold as well as he : 

For once, upon a raw and gusty day, 

The troubled Tyber chafing with her shores, 



154 EXPRESSION. 

Caesar said to me, Dar'st tkou, Cassius, 71070 
Leap in 'with me into this angry flood. 

And swim to yonder point ? Upon the word, 

Accoutred as I was, I plunged in, 

And bade him follow : so indeed he did. 

The torent roared, and we did buffet it 

With lusty sinews, throwing it aside 

And stemming it with hearts of controversy ; 

But, ere we could arrive the point proposal, 

Caesar cried, Help me, Cassius, or I sink! 

I, as ^neas, our great ancestor, 

Did from the flames cf Troy upon his shoulder 

The old Anchises bear, so from the waves of Tyber 

Did I the tired Caesar : and this man 

Is now become a god; and Cassius is 

A wretched creature, and must bend his body, 

If Caesar carelessly but nod on him. 

He had a fever when he was in Spain ; 

And when the fit was on him I did mark 

How he did shake ; 'tis true, this god did shake: 

His coward lips did from their color fly ; 

And that same eye, whose bend doth awe the world, 

Did lose his lustre. I did hear him groan : 

Ay, and that tongue of his, that bade the Romans 

Mark him, and write his speeches in their books, 

Alas, it cried, Give me some drink, Titinius, 

As a sick girl. — Ye gods, it doth amaze me, 

A man of such a feeble temper should 

So get the start of the majestic world, 

And bear the palm alone. 

Brutus and Ccesar: what should be in that Ccesar? 

Why should that name be sounded more than yours ? 

Write them together, yours is as fair a name ; 

Sound them, it doth become the mouth as well; 

Weigh them, it is as heavy; conjure with them, 

Brutus will start a spirit as soon as Ccesar. 

Now, in the names of all the gods at once, 

Upon what meat doth this our Caesar feed, 

That he is grown so great? Age, thou art sham'd! 



EXPRESSION. 155 

Rome, thou hast lost the breed of noble bloods ! 
When went there by an age, since the great flood, 
But it was fam'd with more than with one man ? 
When could they say, till now, that talk'd cf Rome, 
That her wide walls encompass'd but one man ? 
Now is it Rome indeed, and room enough, 
When there is in it but one only man. 
O, you and I have heard our fathers say 
There was a Brutus once that would have brook'd 
Th' eternal Devil to keep his state in Rome, 
As easily as a king ! 

VII. LANGUAGE. — Ruskin. 

Didactic conversational. — Medium pitch inclining to high ; slow rate ; 
downward slides ; inclining to pure tone. 

With regard to the art of all men, that of language, the 
chief vices of education have arisen from the one great fallacy 
of supposing that noble language is a communicable trick of 
grammar and accent, instead of the careful expression of right 
thought. All the virtues of language are, in their roots, moral ; 
it becomes accurate if the speaker desires to be true ; clear, 
if he speaks with sympathy and a desire to be intelligible ; 
powerful, if he has earnestness ; pleasant, if he has sense of 
rhythm and order. 

There are no other virtues of language producible by art 
than these ; but let me mark more deeply for an instant the 
significance of one of them. Language, I said, is only clear 
when it is sympathetic. You can, in truth, understand a man's 
word only by understanding his temper. Your own word is 
also as of an unknown tongue to him unless he understands 
yours. And it is this which makes the art of language, if 
any one is to be chosen separately from the rest, that which 
is fittest for the instrument of a gentleman's education. 

To teach the meaning of a word thoroughly, is to teach the 
nature of the spirit that coined it ; the secret of language is 
the secret of sympathy, and its full charm is possible only to 



156 EXPRESSION. 

the gentle. And thus the principles of beautiful speech have 
all been fixed by sincere and kindly speech. 

On the laws which have been determined by sincerity, false 
speech, apparently beautiful, may afterward be constructed; 
but all such utterance, whether in oration or poetry, is not 
only without permanent power, but it is destructive of the prin- 
ciples it has usurped. So long as no words are uttered but 
in faithfulness, so long the art of language goes on exalting 
itself ; but the moment it is shaped and chiselled on external 
principles, it falls into frivolity and perishes. No noble nor 
right style was ever yet founded but out of a sincere heart. 

No man is worth studying to form your style who docs not 
mean what he says ; nor was any great style ever invented 
but by some man who meant what he said. 

And of yet greater importance is it deeply to know that 
every beauty possessed by the language of a nation is signifi- 
cant of the innermost laws of its being. Keep the temper 
of the people stern and manly; make their associations cour- 
teous, grave, and for worthy objects ; occupy them in just deeds, 
and their tongue must needs be a grand one. Nor is it pos- 
sible, therefore, that any tongue should be a noble one, of 
which the words are not so many trumpet calls to action. All 
great languages invariably utter great things and command 
them; they cannot be mimicked but by obedience; the breath 
of them is inspiration because it is not only vocal but vital ; 
and you can only learn to speak as these men spoke, by be- 
coming what these men were. 

VIII. BUNKER HILL MONUMENT. — Webster. 

Oratoric. — Observe the thoughtful, solid utterances. Slow time, 
medium to low pitch, full voice, downward slides (Webster's delivery 
was noted for the abundance of strong, downward slides), radical stress. 

We know, indeed, that the record of illustrious actions is 
most safely deposited in the universal remembrance of man- 



EXPRESSION. 157 

kind. We know, that if we could cause this structure to as- 
cend, not only till it reached the skies, but till it pierced them, 
its broad surfaces could still contain but a part of that which, 
in an age of knowledge, has already been spread over the 
earth, and which history charges itself with making known 
to all future times. We know that no inscription, no entab- 
latures less broad than the earth itself, can carry information 
of the events we commemorate where it has not already 
gone ; and that no structure which shall not outlive the 
duration of letters and knowledge among men, can prolong 
the memorial. But our object is, by this edifice to show 
our deep sense of the value and importance of the achieve- 
ments of our ancestors ; and, by presenting this work of 
gratitude to the eye, to keep alive similar sentiments, and 
to foster a constant regard for the principles of the Revolu- 
tion. Human beings are composed, not of reason only, but 
of imagination also, and sentiment ; and that is neither wasted 
nor misapplied, which is appropriated to the purpose of 
giving right direction to sentiments, and of opening proper 
springs of feeling in the heart. 

Let it not be supposed that our object is to perpetuate 
national hostility, or even to cherish a mere military spirit. 

It is higher, purer, nobler. We consecrate our work to the 
spirit of national independence ; and we wish that the light 
of peace may rest upon it forever. We rear a memorial cf 
our conviction of that unmeasured benefit which has been 
conferred on our land, and of the happy influences which 
have been produced, by the same events, on the general 
interests of mankind. We come, as Americans, to mark a 
spot which must forever be dear to us and our posterity. 
We wish that whosoever, in all coming time, shall turn his 
eye hither, may behold that the place is not undistinguished 
where the first great battle of the Revolution was fought. 
We wish that this structure may proclaim the magnitude 
and importance cf that event, to every class and every age. 



I58 EXPRESSION. 

We wish that infancy may learn the purpose of its erection 
from maternal lips ; and that wearied and withered age may 
behold it and be solaced by the recollections which it sug- 
gests. We wish that labor may look up here and be proud 
in the midst of its toil. We wish that, in those clays of dis- 
aster which, as they come on all nations, may be expected 
to come on us also, desponding patriotism may turn its eyes 
hitherward, and be assured that the foundations of our 
national power still stand strong. We wish that this column, 
rising towards heaven among the pointed spires of so many 
temples dedicated to God, may contribute also to produce, in 
all minds, a pious feeling of dependence and gratitude. We 
wish, finally, that the last object on the sight of him who 
leaves his native shore, and the first to gladden his heart who 
revisits it, may be something which shall remind him of the 
liberty and the glory of his country. Let it rise till it meets 
the sun in his coming , let the earliest light of the morning 
gild it, and parting day linger and play on its summit. 

IX. PSALM CXXXIX. — King David. 

Solenui Address. — Subjective and reverential attitude, low pitch, long 
quantity, inclined to monotone, full tone, slow rate, thorough, inclined to 
intermittent stress. 

O I Lord, I thou hast ] searched me, | and | known me. 

I I I Thou I knowest my | down- j sitting | and 
mine | up- | rising, | thou | under- | standest my | thoughts 

I a- I far I off. I I I Thou | compassest my | path, 
j and my | lying | down, | and art ac- | quainted with | all 
my j ways. | | For there is | not a | word in my | tongue, | 
but I lo, I O I Lord, | thou | knowest it | alto- | gether. 

I I I Thou hast be- | set me | be- j hind and be- j fore, 
I and | laid thine | hand up- | on me. | | \ Such J 
knowledge is | too | wonderful for | me : I j it is | high, 

I I I cannot at- | tain unto it. | | | Whither shall I 



EXPRESSION. 159 

I go I from thy ! spirit ? | | or | whither shall I | flee 
from thy | presence ? | | | If I as- | cend | up into 

I heaven, | | thou art | there : J | if I | make my | bed 
in I hell | be- | hold, | thou art | there. | | | If I | 
take the | wings of the | morning | and | dwell in the | utter- 
most I parts of the | sea: j | Even | there | shall thy | 
hand | lead me, | and thy | right | hand shall | hold me. 

I I I If I j say, | Surely the | darkness shall | cover 
me : I j even the | night | shall be | light a- | bout me : 

I I Yea, | the darkness | hicleth not from | thee ; I | 
but the I night | shineth as the | day : | | the | darkness 

j and the | light j are | both a- | like | to | thee. | 

100] 

X. CHAPTER IX. — St. John. 

Thoughtful Narrative. — Observe the dignified and thoughtful attitude 
of Jesus, the haughty bearing of the Pharisees, the cautious manner of 
the parents, the joyful manner of the man with restored sight, and finally 
his twitting of the Pharisees. Medium rate, middle pitch, long quantity, 
median stress, dramatic representation of the various speakers. 

And as | Jesus | passed | by, f he | saw a | man which 
was I blind from his | birth, j | | And his dis- | ciples 
I asked him, | saying, | Master, | who did | sin, | this | 
man | or his | parents, | that he was | born | blind ? | I 
I Jesus I answered, | Neither hath this | man | sinned | nor 
his j parents : | | but that the | works of | God | should 
be I made | manifest in | him. | | | I must | work the 
I works of I him that | sent me, I while it is | day; | | the 
I night I cometh | when | no | man | can | work. | 
I I As I long I as I I am in the | world, | I [ am the | 
light I of the 1 world. | | | When he had | thus | 
spoken, | he | spat on the | ground, | and | made j clay 
I of the j spittle, | and he a- | nointed the | eyes | of 
the I blind | man | with the | clay, | and | said unto him, | 
Go, I wash in the | pool of | Siloam, | | {which is, by in- 



l60 EXPRESSION. 

| terpre- \ tation, \ Sent.) | | He | went his | way, | 
therefore, | and | washed, | and | came | seeing. | | 
00 | 

The | neighbors I therefore, | and \ they which be- \fore 
had | seen him, \ that he was \ blind, | | said, | Is not | this 
| he that | sat and I begged ? | | | Some | said, | 
This | is | he; | | others | said, | He is | like him : | 

| but | he i said, | I | am | he. | | | Therefore | 
said they unto him, | | How | were thine | eyes | opened? 

| | | He | answered and | said, | A j man | that 
is 1 called | Jesus | made | clay, | and a- | nointed mine | 
eyes, 1 and | said unto me, | Go to the | pool of | Siloam, | 
and | wash : | | and I | went and | washed, | and I 
re- | ceived | sight. | | | Then I said they unto him, | 
1 Where | is he ? j | He | said, I I | know not. | 

I | 
They | brought to the | Pharisees | him that a- | foretime 

I was | blind, | | Audit was the \ Sabbath | day | when 

1 Jesus | made the \ clay, \ and \ opened his \ eyes. | | | 
Then a- | gain the | Pharisees | also | asked him | how lie had 
re- | ceived his 1 sight. | j He | said unto | them, | He | 
put | clay | upon mine ) eyes, | and I | washed | and 
do | see. | | | Therefore said \ some of the \ Pharisees, | 
This | man is | not of | God, | be- | cause | he | keepeth 
not the | Sabbath | day. | | Others | said, | How can a 

| man that is a | sinner, | do such | miracles ? | | And 
there was | a di- | vision a- | mong them. | | | They 
say | unto the | blind | man a- | gain, | | What | sayest | 
thou of him ? | that he hath j opened thine | eyes ? | I 
He said, | He is a | prophet. | J j 

But the | Jews | did not be- | lieve con- | cerning him | 
that he \ had been \ blind, | and re- \ ceived his \ sight, | un- | 
til they | called the | parents of | him that had re- | ceived his 

1 sight. | i And they I asked them, | saying, | | Is [ 
this your | son, | who ye | say | was | born | blind ? | j 



EXPRESSION. l6l 

how | then | doth he | now | see ? | | | His 
| parents | answered them | and | said, | | We | know 
| that | this is our | son, | and that he was | born | blind : 
| | But by | what | means | he | now | seeth, | we j 
know | not ; | or I who hath | opened his | eyes, | we | 
know not : | j he is of | age, | ask | him, | he shall 
| speak for him- | self. | | 

These I words | spake his | parents, | be- | cause they | 
feared the | Jews : | | for the | Jews had agreed al | 
ready, | that if | any man | did | confess | that he was | 
Christ, | he should be | put | out of the | synagogue. [ 
| | Therefore | said his parents, | he is of | age, | ask | 
him. | | | 

Then a- | gain | called they the | man that was | blind, | 
and | said, | Give | God the | praise : | we | know that | 
this | man | is a | sinner. | | | He answered and 
[ said, | Whether he | be a | sinner or | no, | I | know 
not ; | J one | thing I | know, | that where- | as I | was 
| blind | | now | I | see. | | | Then | said 
they | to him a- | gain, | What did he to thee ? | | How 
1 opened he thine | eyes ? | | | He answered them, 
| I have | told you al- | ready, | and ye | did not | hear : 
| | wherefore | would ye | hear it a- | gain? | | Will 
| ye | also | be his dis- | ciples ? | | | Then they re- | 
viled him, | and | said, | Thou art | his dis- | ciple ; [ but 
| we are | Moses' dis- | ciples. | | | We | know that 
God | spake unto | Moses : 10 j as for | this | fellow, 
| we | know not from | whence he | is. | | | The 
| man | answered and | said unto them, I | Why, | 
herein | is a | marvellous J thing, | that ye | know not 
from | whence he | is, | and J yet he hath \ opened mine \ eyes. 
| | | Now we | know that | God | heareth not | sin- 
ners : | [ but if | any man | be a | worshipper of | God, 
| and | doeth his | will, | him he | heareth. | | | 
Since the | world be- | gan | it was not | heard, | that | any 



l62 EXPRESSION. 

man | opened the | eyes of | one that was | born | blind. | 
| If | this | man were | not of | God, | he could | do | 
nothing. J | | They | answered and | said unto him, 
| | Thou wast | alto- | gether | born in | sins, | and dost 
] thou | teach | us ? | | And they | cast him | out. | | 
00 | 

Jesus ] heard that they had | cast him | out ; j and | 
when he had | found him, | he | said unto him, | | Dost 
thou be- | Iieve on the | Son of | God ? | | | He [ 
answered and | said, | Who ] is he, | Lord? | | that I | 
might be- | lieve on him ? | | | And | Jesus | said unto 
him, | | Thou hast both | seen him, | | and it is | he 
that | talketh with thee. | | | And he | said, | Lord, 
| I be- | lieve. I I And he | worshipped him. | 

XI. THE SURE REWARD. — J. G. YVhittier. 

E7notio)ial Narrative. — Moderate rate; middle pitch; median stress; 
long quantity. 

i. It may not be our lot to wield 
The sickle in the ripened field; 
Nor ours to hear on summer eves 
The reaper's song among the sheaves. 

2. Yet where our duty's task is wrought 
In unison with God's great thought, 
The near and future blend in one, 
And whatsoe'er is willed, is done. 

3. And ours the grateful service whence 
Comes, day by day, the recompense ; 
The hope, the trust, the purpose stayed, 
The fountain, and the noonday shade. 

4. And were this life the utmost span, 
The only end and aim of man, 
Better the toil of fields like these, 
Than waking dream and slothful ease. 



EXPRESSION. 163 

5. But life, though falling like our grain, 
Like that revives and springs again ; 
And, early called, how blest are they 
Who wait in heaven their harvest day. 



XTI. FULNESS OF LOVE. — Charles Wesley. 

Emotional Narrative. — Middle pitch, moderate rate; full tone; me- 
dian stress ; long quantity. 

1. O I Love Di- | vine, | how | sweet [ thou art ! J G \ 
When I shall I | find my | willing | heart [ 

All-ta- I ken up | by thee ? | | 
I thirst, I I I faint, j | I die | to | prove 
The I greatness | of redeem- | ing love, | 

The I love of [ Christ | to me. | | -0 | 

2. Stronger | his love | than death | or hell; | | 
Its rich- I es I are un- | searcha- | ble ; J | 

The first- | born | sons of | light j 
Desire | in vain | its depths | to see; | | | | 
They can- | not reach | the mys- | tery, | 

The length, | | the breadth, | | the height. | | | 

3. O I that I I could for- [ ever sit | 

With Mary | at | the Mas- | ter's feet! | | 

Be this I my | happy | choice ; | | 
My on- I ly care, | | delight, | | and bliss, | | 
My joy, I I my hea- | ven on ' earth, | be this, | 

To j hear the |' Bride- [ groom's | voice. | | | 

4. O I that I I could, | with fa- [ vored John, 
Re- I cline my | weary | head | upon 

The I dear Re- | deemer's | breast ! | | 
From care, j [ and sin, | | and sor- | row free, | 
Give me, | O | Lord, j to | find | in thee | 

My ever- | lasting | rest. | 



i 



B. N. KIRBY, 

Qxabixaie of tbe ~gUox\xoe f&oxx&evvatovx) of Qxatoxv; 
TEACHEB OF 

VOCAL CULTURE 



AND THE 



ART OF EXPRESSION 



Private and class instruction adapted to the needs of students pre- 
paring for Pulpit, Platform, or Bar Address, for Reading, or 
Shakespearian Delineation. 

SELF-INSTRUCTING CLASSES. 

Classes organized for mutual instruction, according to the plan in 
Vocal and Action-Language Culture and Expression, may secure 
the services of the author to introduce the subject and to pay occasional 
visits for examinations and directing the practice. 

By this plan the student is made self-reliant, the practical service of a 
skilful teacher is secured, and the class put in the way of making certain 
development at a fraction of the usual cost. 



) I. The Art of Expression. 
LECTURES. > 

) II. Orators : Their Art and their Apes. 



Instruction begins first Monday in dctober. 



Si Be^agon Street, Boston, Mass. 



